Extracting sand microarthropods - a carbon-tetrachloride flotation method
A carbon tetrachloride flotation method is tested in the laboratory and in the field. Its efficiency approaches 100% in the laboratory and densities observed in the field exceed all densities previously published. The method is simple to perform but limited to low organic soils.
Extracting invertebrates from bryophytes
Company: Springer Distributor: Springer Institution: Springer Label: Springer Number: 1 Publisher: Kluwer Academic Publishers
Bulletin of the Institute of Environmental Science and Technology, Yokohama National University
A modified Tullgren funnel with double porous discs for preventing soil particles from dropping into collection tube
An improvement was made in the Tullgren funnel to obtain clean material of soil animals. Insertion of "double porous discs" below the ordinal sieve resulted in effective exclusion of soil particles and organic debris dropping into collecting tube.
Lebensgemeinschaften der Landtiere. Ihre Erforschung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der zoozönologischen Arbeitsmethoden.
Apparecchio per raccogliere presto ed in gran numero piccoli arthropodi
Bulletino della Societá Entomologica Italiana
Apparecchio per raccogliere presto ed in gran numero piccoli artropodi
A Handbook of Tropical Soil Biology. Sampling and Characterization of Below-ground Biodiversity
Soil Collembola, Acari and Other Mesofauna - The Berlese Method
Revised terrestrial arthropod sampling protocols for the Alberta Biodiversity Monitoring Program: Examining the biodiversity of soil mesofauna (Acari and Collembola) in Alberta
During Phase I of the Alberta Biodiversity Monitoring Program (ABMP), a variety of methods for sampling the terrestrial arthropod fauna were reviewed. Two protocols, using Lindgren traps and pan traps, were developed to sample arthropod fauna and integrated with other ABMP sampling protocols to monitor biodiversity in Alberta. In 2002, a number of scientific and sampling concerns were identified with the integrated protocols for terrestrial arthropods in the ABMP. The purpose of this report is to review and revise the previously proposed arthropod sampling protocols for the ABMP so that these problems are reduced, or to suggest and develop alternative protocols that avoid the existing problems and integrate into the existing ABMP sampling protocols. Study of terrestrial arthropods is essential to achieve the main goal of the ABMP, specifically “to monitor the status and trend of biodiversity in Alberta.” Comments and criticisms regarding the protocols used and the taxa selected for terrestrial arthropod component of the ABMP have been made. These are summarized and discussed in the report. New sampling protocols are suggested for the terrestrial arthropod component of the ABMP. Litter sampling will allow for a single trip into an ABMP site, which compliments the present ABMP protocols. A discussion of various arthropod taxa and their potential for use in the ABMP is also presented. The great diversity and high density of the arthropod fauna collected in litter samples will provide adequate data for analysis and meet the goals and objectives for the ABMP. Two taxonomic groups are suggested for species level analysis in the ABMP, Collembola and Oribatida. Protocols for sample collection, fauna extraction and laboratory processing of collembolan and oribatid specimens are outlined along with an equipment list for both laboratory and field work. Two options for fauna extraction are given, field extraction and lab extraction along with the pros and cons of both options. Time estimates for sample collection, extraction and specimen processing are given. Finally, a pilot project to test these new protocols and the statistical strength of the data is outlined. New datasheets are presented at the end of the report.
Inventory Methods for Terrestrial Arthropods. Standards for Components of British Columbia´s Biodiversity No. 40
Identification of potential monitored elements and sampling protocols for terrestrial arthropods
Terrestrial arthropods are the most diverse group of organisms in forests and play an essential role in ecosystem functioning. However, patterns of biodiversity in the terrestrial arthropod component of Alberta’s forested regions remain largely unstudied. A range of natural resource management practices, including forestry, fire suppression, and petroleum development, affect biodiversity in Alberta. The monitoring of arthropod biodiversity patterns at different spatial and temporal scales should yield useful information for developing natural resource management options. However, a good monitoring program must have clearly articulated objectives, be carefully planned, and be executed in a rigorous standardized manner. This document outlines the steps required to implement a terrestrial arthropod monitoring program including the need for long-term planning and the resources required to achieve success. Steps addressed are: an introduction to monitoring of terrestrial arthropods; selection of taxa to monitor; data integration with a seven-step analysis package; a synthesis of the sampling protocols and logistics appropriate for monitoring; detailed costing for time, equipment, processing and storage of data, archiving target groups and residues; the infrastructure needed to complete the entire field and laboratory segments of a project; data management considerations; scenarios for a recommended pilot project; and suggestions for longer-term research.
A new integrated extraction method for microarthropods and nematodes from the same soil samples
Extracting animals from soil samples usually involves different techniques depending upon the faunal group to be studied. This generally prevents linking different taxocoenoses to the same structural soil unit. Specifically, microarthropods and nematodes need completely different methods. Behavioural methods do not extract the complete biota, since only motile stages can be expelled. The best technique for quantitative microarthropod extraction has been found to be hydrocarbon phase separation, whereas nematodes are best extracted by density-related methods, the most common of this methods is the sugar centrifugation method. We introduce a protocol that uses a variation of both direct methods sequentially on the same soil sample. This allows a quantification of these taxocoenoses within a given structural soil subunit. This protocol may ultimately lead to a better understanding of the role of soil mesoorganisms. The validation of the method was carried out experimentally on real samples by statistical comparisons with the results of extractions by conventional methods.
Ein abgeänderter Macfadyen-Apparat für die dynamische Extraktion von Bodenarthropoden
The modified Macfadyen extractor described in this paper has been constructed following plans of a prototype which was seen for the first time in 1976 at the Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, U.K. (Dr. CA. Edwards). The main modifications which have been made concern the materials used, the cooling system in the lower section (below soil samples) and the drying system in the upper section (above soil samples). The first tests carried out on soil samples from the Swiss National Park show that the extractor has more than 90% efficiency for most of the arthropod families represented in the samples. The extractor is described in detail.
Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Entomologischen Gesellschaft
Recovery of mites from peat and mineral soils using a new flotation method
Numbers are given of vnrious Acari nn extrncted from pent nnd mineral soils. using :1 flot:1tion method developed by I late ( 1964) for Collcnlbola. Com pn ring t he Tiale flotat ion met h od with the high grad ient extractor (Macfadycn 1961) it is est imated that for the recovery of Acarinn the latter is twice (or 200%) ns efficient'""it h the pea t soil ud. nnd" 3 times (325%) as efficien t wit h the mineral soil ued in the experiments.Thesedifference "were significan t n t P <0·01 for peat, and nt P <0·001 for mineral soil.
Some physical gradients set up in Tullgren funnels during the extraction of mites from poultry litter
(1) Details of techniques used during the extraction of mites from poultry deep-litter are described. Extractions were carried out in a commercial version of the Tullgren funnel. (2) Temperature and humidity gradients were measured during extraction, and relative humidity found to be initially higher in the middle of samples than at the bottom. After about 12 h a switch occurred, and the RH gradient developed downward throughout the sample. (3) In a minority of extractions no RH switch occurred. However, a consistent downward gradient in evaporation rate was demonstrated in two such cases by the use of a simple evaporimeter. Estimation of saturation deficits suggests that downward evaporating gradients may mitigate upward RH gradients. (4) Extraction efficiency was estimated by introducing known numbers of three species of laboratory cultured mites into sterilized litter. Adults were extracted with 86-97% efficiency, but some larvae and nymphs much less efficiently. (5) Dry funnel extraction techniques are discussed in relation to the behaviour and sensory physiology of mites.
A flotation method using reduced air pressure for the extraction of sciarid fly larvae from organic soil
Eine Flotationsmethode zur Extraktion von Larven und Puppen der Art Bradysia paupera TUOMIKOSKI (Diptera, Sciaridae) aus "John Innes" Pflanzenerde wird beschrieben. Schwimmender Torf wird mit Wasser gesättigt und durch Reduzierung des Luftdruckes oberhalb der Probe versenkt. Die Methode ist schnell und benötigt nur allgemein vorhandene Laborausrüstung. Eine hohe Extraktỉonseffizienz wird für Puppen und Larven des 4. Häutungsstadiums erreicht.
Extracting endogeous microarthropods: a new flotation method using 1,2-dibromoethane
Many methods have been proposed for extracting soil microarthropods. They are generally well adapted for specific substrates and taxonomical groups. Flotation in saturated aqueous salt solutions was tested and should not be used. Carbon tetrachloride flotation and LUDOX methods were found to be unable to extract microarthropods from loamy soil samples. Therefore, a new flotation method using 1,2-dibromoethane (DBE) was set up. It was especially efficient for soft-bodied animals and deep soil samples, which usually are very difficult to process. The method applies to any soil with low organic content, including most cultured soils. It was found to extract five times more microarthropods and 1.5 more taxa than a classic dry funnel method. Its absolute efficiency varied from 41 to 100% depending on the taxa and stase. As DBE is hazardous, special precautions have to be taken when handling the product.
Standard Soil Methods for Long-Term Ecological Research
A high-efficiency,“low-technology” Tullgren-type extractor for soil microarthropods
Construction and operation of a high-gradient Tullgren-type extractor for soil microarthropods are described. The extractor is simple and inexpensive, and is designed to be operated in a refrigerator or refrigerated room. Tops of samples are heated by Christmas tree lights; bottoms of samples are protected from heat by baffles and are cooled by the refrigerated air, yielding a 20°C gradient. The design of the extractor and the operating procedures are intended to reduce contamination by soil, thus increasing efficiency and reducing sample sorting time.
Methods of Study in Quantitative Soil Ecology: Population, Production and Energy Flow
A comparison of extraction methods for terrestrial arthropods
Methods for assessing populations of soil-inhabiting invertebrates
Soil-inhabiting invertebrates are extremely diverse in form, differ greatly in size and numbers, and are often aggregated in horizontal and vertical distribution. Methods available for assessing populations are all based on representative samples. They include field counting, use of attractant traps or pitfall traps, and assessing numbers of invertebrates in soil samples. Invertebrates can be separated from soil either by wet or dry methods based on physical principles, or by dynamic methods which use stimuli to make them leave the samples. Physical methods of separation include hand sorting of soil, soil washing and flotation, elutriation in an upward flow of water, use of a technique which involves passing soil over plates covered with a grease film in which the invertebrates become embedded, and centrifuging soil samples in water or dense solutions so that invertebrates come to the surface. Dynamic methods suitable for most arthropods include the use of dry funnels with, high controlled temperature and moisture gradients, and wet-funnel methods which are used mainly for nematodes and enchytraeid worms. Dry funnels which are easy to use are the most popular technique, but have the drawback that they do not extract eggs or resting stages. Wet funnels, which are more laborious, recover these stages, but also dead individuals. Flotation methods are best for sandy soils, whereas dry funnels are more efficient for peat or clay soils. For most soils, dry funnels are most efficient for the extraction of microand mesoarthropods, but flotation is usually preferable for macroarthropods.
Microfloral and Faunal Interactions in Natural and Agro-Ecosystems
Recent advances in quantitative soil biology
Notes on the efficiency of a modified Tullgren apparatus for extracting oribatid mites
Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment (Spec. Issue)
Improvements to the heptane flotation method for collecting microarthropods from silt loam soil
Microarthropods can be extracted from soil using the heptane flotation method. To determine the most efficient use of this method for silt loam soil, field-moist samples weighing 25, 50 or 100 g were treated with four variants of the method described. The variants differ with respect to magnetic-stirrer size and using or omitting the procedure of rinsing the beaker wall and sieve with alcohol. After each flotation cycle, the number of mites and springtails extracted was determined. The number of flotation cycles needed to extract >95% of the microarthropods in a sample: (1) was not affected by stirrer size, except for the samples of 100 g (smaller stirrer size is less efficient); (2) increased with sample weight from three cycles for 25 g samples to six for 100 g samples; and (3) was not affected by omitting the rinsing procedure. There was no effect of sample size on the total number of microarthropods extracted per unit weight. It is concluded that flotation of 25 g field-moist soil samples in three cycles without the rinsing procedure is the most efficient variant. It takes about half the time to extract 25 g samples to >95%, compared with 100 g samples.
A flotation method for extracting Collembola from organic soils
A flotation method for the extraction of Collembola and other animals from organic soils is described. Plant material is caused to sink in either water or magnesium sulphate solution by boiling under reduced pressure, and the animals are subsequently floated by means of stirring and bubbling. It was found that the apparatus had an efficiency of extraction which was similar to the high gradient cylinder, for which Macfadyen (1961) claims an efficiency of up to ten times that of an ordinary Tullgren funnel.
A new technique for isolation of mites exploiting the difference in density between ethanol and saturated NaCl: qualitative and quantitative studies
Qualitative and quantitative experiments using a new flotation method for isolating mites from Berlese extracts, museum storage jars, house-dust and laboratory cultures are described. The results show the extractive efficiency to be 97-98%. The advantages of this technique over other known techniques are discussed.
Quantification of house‐dust‐mite populations
Since the proposal that allergen from the mite Dermatophagoides pteronyssinusis is identical to the house-dust allergen supposed to cause asthma and allergy, interest in the abundance, species diversity, and frequency of mites in the home has expanded. Surveys and ecologic studies have confirmed the ubiquity of mites in house dust, especially mites of the family Pyroglyphidae, but most do not give an accurate estimate of population size or mite exposure. These are still important issues today in attempts to quantify the exposure to house-dust mite that constitutes a risk, to assess mite-eradication trials, and to determine fluctuations in mite population. The problems encountered with common methods of house-dust sampling, mite extraction, and measuring house-dust allergen are discussed.
A procedure for extraction of microarthropods from bulk soil samples with emphasis on inactive stages
Two mechanical methods, soil washing and heptane flotation, are sequentially utilized to extract microarthropods from large samples of loosely structured soil. A 5-gal volume of soil is subdivided into five equal portions; 3 gal of water is added to each portion in a 5-gal pail. The water is stirred until all soil particles are suspended. Material that floats to the surface is skimmed into a collection container and preserved with 95% ethyl alcohol. Arthropods are then extracted by heptane flotation as discussed herein. The procedure is useful for sampling nutrient-poor soils as well as deep soil faunas in many soil types. A large number of individuals may be recovered, including quiescent phases and inactive stages of microarthropods.
On the sampling and extracting technique for soil micro-arthropods
Japanese investigators of soil animals assembled in Minoo, near Osaka, to compare their sampling and extracting techniques with each other. The samples were taken from the same forest stand and brought back to each investigator's laboratory to be treated by his own technique. The results of the discussion on the comparison of each technique are as follows: (1) Unit sampling area should be in concordance with the sizes of the animals. Thus the unit sample area of 25×25cm^2 and 5×5cm^2 was recommended for medium and small sized animals respectively. (2) Sampling depth is also recommended to be a multiple of 2.5cm. (3) Taking samples from a vertical section would prevent soil contamination. (4) Soil sampler as a container would facilitate protection of the samples from damage due to desiccation, pressure and so on during transportation. (5) Extraction should be conducted under rather weak heat and fairly long duration.
Seasonal variation in sampling efficiency of Collembola and Protura
Soil dwelling Collembola from coniferous forest podzol were sampled using a corer and a Macfadyen high gradient canister extractor. Density estimates and reproduction periods were compared. The efficiency of the sampling method varied during the year, being highest in the winter. Two factors were found to be important in this connection: (1) When collecting soil samples from unfrozen soil, a significant number of both Collembola and Protura was killed. The latter was most heavily affected. In frozen soil this did not happen, and the number of animals collected per sample was considerably higher. (2) Even when the soil was not frozen, an artificial winter maximum of Collembola was obtained. This is explained by a more efficient extraction from soil samples taken in winter, may be due to some physiological changes in the animals. The Protura showed no similar reaction. The importance of analyzing the age structure of the populations in order to interpret the density estimates is stressed.
Notes on methods for the extraction of small soil arthropods
Two developments of the Tullgren-type funnel for the extraction of soil organisms are described; the first is a paraffin-burning model for expedition conditions, the second an electrically operated type for laboratory use. The efficiency of these devices is compared with that of other funnels and with a flotation technique and with hand sorting. A number of faults in the methods are exposed and suggestions for a more efficient apparatus are discussed; it is probable that the present technique is nearly 100% efficient for the thick-skinned Oribatid mites. The need to adapt techniques to different soil types and taxonomic groups is emphasized.
Improved funnel-type extractors for soil arthropods
1. Three distinct types of apparatus based on the Tullgren funnel are discussed in this paper. In all three, arrangements are made for maintaining steep temperature and humidity gradients in the sample, features which are shown to be necessary for efficient extraction. 2. The large funnel extractor is for large arthropods and samples of 1/8 m2 area. 3. The small funnel extractor is for 100 cm2 samples of material which cannot be handled by a cylindrical sampling tool. Humidity and temperature control are achieved by means of an air-conditioned cabinet. 4. The cylinder extractor is for normal soils which can be sampled with a sharpened steel cylinder. In this case, humidity can be derived from the soil in the sample itself and a simpler extraction apparatus is possible. 5. The new methods are shown to yield from two to ten times as many animals as a standard Tullgren-type funnel, so that counts around 10^5 small arthropods per m2 are commonly achieved on bracken-covered moorland soils. 6. Some details of construction of the apparatus are provided in the Appendix.
Bulletin of the Entomological Society of Canada Supplement
Terrestrial arthropod biodiversity: Planning a study and recommended sampling techniques
Knowledge of biodiversity is important for wise management and use of the earth's resources.Terrestrial arthropods (insects and their relatives) are by far the most diverse groups of animals and important contributors to biodiversity. However, a synopsis of techniques suitable for assessing diversity for terrestrial arthropods is not readily available to many of those responsible for general assessments of biodiversity. This brief therefore offers general guidelines for planning a study of arthropod biodiversity, including attention to long-term planning, choice of taxonomic groups, and the resources required for sampling, sorting and identification. The brief recommends in some detail the specific sampling methods appropriate for this purpose. It proposes a standard sampling protocol for the assessment of regional biodiversity, suggesting that any such general inventory should include, at a minimum, Malaise, flight-intercept and pan traps, as well as behavioural extractors such as Berlese funnels, and it presents some estimates of the time required to process samples, for use in planning a budget. The major current impediment to properly planned and executed studies of arthropod diversity is the limited number of systematics experts available to identify species. Resources for systematics support therefore should be included in project budgets.
Comparison of soil extraction methods for nematodes and microarthropods
Active extraction techniques, dependent on the behavior of soil animals, and passive techniques, dependent on specific gravity or sedimentation rate, are widely used in the extraction of both nematodes and microarthropods. No method is completely suitable for extraction of both nematodes and microarthropods. Since no extraction method is 100% efficient, the estimation of extraction efficiency can provide a basis for evaluating extraction performance and comparing results of different methods.
Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society
An inexpensive, high-efficiency Tullgren extractor for soil microarthropods
An inexpensive Tullgren-type extractor employing steep temperature and humidity gradients was constructed inside a refrigerator-sized environmental chamber and a used household refrigerator. The extractor has proven to be highly efficient.
Zoologische Jahrbücher, Abteilung Systematik, Ökologie und Geographie der Tiere
Vergleichende Prüfung bodenzoologischer Auslesemethoden für Kleinarthropoden
A modified funnel method for extracting soil meiofauna
Details of the split-funnel extractor, a modified funnel method for extracting soil fauna are given, together with results of an experiment to test the apparatus, and the effect of sample treatment on extraction efficiency. With heathland samples best results are obtained when litter and raw humus are extracted separately, the latter in thin layers (1.3-1.9 cm), in an undisturbed condition. There is little difference between room temperaure and a heated funnel (air temperature 30-35°C) for extraction of litter, although with raw humus the latter is more effective. Both desiccation and temperature appear to be important factors in the process. Treatment results indicate the importance of a temperature stimulus in the early stages of extraction, and that good recovery will depend upon striking a balance between a temperature which, although not providing a too rapid drying rate, is sufficient to cause a definite negatively thermotactic response.
Transactions of the 6th International Congress of Soil Science
The split funnel extractor - A modified Tullgren funnel
Details are given for the construction and operation of the split-funnel extractor, a modified funnel method for extracting soil animals. The apparatus is designed for small samples of 20-100 cm3. With this funnel the desiccation process is readily controlled, and there is a special sample container and double sieve-plate arrangement to prevent sample debris falling into the collecting tube.
Extraction methods for soil animals. I. Dynamic methods with particular reference to funnel processes
Dynamic extraction methods include those that require the active participa­tion of the animal and its movement out of the medium containing it in response to stimuli either attractant or repellent in nature-more usually the latter. The mode of action of the conventional dry funnel is based on the repellent effects of desiccation and temperature, and this method is commonly used to separate arthropods, particularly Acarina and Collembola, from soil and organic material. With suitable modifications in apparatus and procedure it can also be used for certain members of the Isopoda, Diplopoda, Chilopoda, Thysanoptera, Hemiptera and Coleoptera among others. The wet funnel has been used primarily for extracting animal and plant parasitic and free-living nematodes and also Enchytraeidae from soil and vegetable matter, and here temperature appears to be the principal repellent stimulus. The latter group of methods has also been used for Rotifera and the larvae of certain Diptera. Details are given of modifications of both types of extractor including dry funnels utilizing light and repellent chemicals as stimuli, and among wet­ funnel modifications, the spray funnel, the reciprocating-shaker technique and Petri-dish extractor. Recent developments where use is made of a combination of attractant and repellent stimuli are also reviewed. With both groups of methods, the nature of the substrate, its condition and the treatment it receives, appear to have an important bearing on extraction efficiency. In dry-funnel extraction the most important treatment effects arise from compression, dis­turbance and especially the depth of sample material placed in the extractor; the latter factor coupled with the water temperature and aeration can be of considerable importance in the wet-funnel process also. It is suggested that in the search for means of improving these methods a certain degree of over­-elaboration may have occurred, and the influence of comparatively simple modifications in operational procedure have not received the attention they deserve.
Extraction methods for soil animals. II. Mechanical methods
In mechanical extraction methods the animal's role is a passive one and separation depends on such factors as the nature and density of the substrate, the size, shape and density of the animal, and quite often the properties of its integument. The methods reviewed include direct examination, dry and wet sieving, flotation, centrifugation, sedimentation, elutriation, maceration, digestion or dissolution of the substrate, the collection of animals by suction methods, and imprint and brushing techniques. Most attention has been paid to methods designed for the extraction of soil Nematoda and Arthropoda but other animal groups including Protozoa, Gasteropoda and Lumbricidae have also been considered. The basic stages in mechanical extraction of soil animals include dispersion of soil particles, the separation of animal matter from mineral soil, and segregation of animal and plant matter. Certain recent extraction procedures use a cormbination of methods, each suited to a particular stage in the process. lt is suggested that, with some of these techniques at least, there is scope for development and improvement. Much can be learnt from methods used in related fields, especially those used in the analysis of foodstuffs and for the recovery of animal parasites from various substrates.
Effect of sample treatment on extraction efficiency with the split-funnel extractor
For extraction of Acarina from heathland best results are obtained when litter and raw humus are extracted separately, the latter in thin layers (I.3-1·9 cm), in an undisturbed condition. There is little difference between room tempera­ture and a heated funnel (air temperature: 30-35°C) for extraction of litter, but with raw humus a heated funnel is essential. It is probably better to invert the raw-humus subsamples. Poorest results are obtained when litter and raw humus are not separated, and the latter is disturbed before extraction. The time at which the total population of Acarina has left the raw humus is correlated with level of desiccation of the sample, which in turn is a function of its volume and therefore depth of sample. Disturbed samples take longer to dry and population egress is spread over a much longer period.
An autosegregator for use in collecting soil-inhabiting arthropods
Transactions of the American Microscopical Society
Method for extracting pear thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) from forest soil
After soil samples were rinsed through sieves, pear thrips, Taeniothrips inconsequens (Uzel), adults and larvae were separated from the residue by a heptane flotation process. Thrips were counted on filter paper under a microscope at 8× magnification. To test efficiency of the extraction procedure, pear thrips adults and larvae were added to samples of forest soil before extraction. In 80 trials, 59 ± 4.7% of the adults and 84 ± 2.3% of the larvae were recovered by heptane flotation. The heptane procedure was significantly more efficient than a MgSO4 flotation method, which gave a recovery of 14 ± 2.9% for adults (30 trials) and 39 ± 3.5% for larvae (40 trials). Extraction by heptane flotation took 52 ± 2.0 min, of which 26 ± 1.8 min were required for counting. Counting time was reduced to ≈ 7 ± 3.4 min when floating organic matter was first removed by adding water to samples and allowing 24 h for thrips to sink. Using this modified procedure, we recovered 88 ± 5.1% of the larvae.
Publisher: Oxford University Press Oxford, UK
Some properties of two high-gradient extractors for soil microarthropods, and an attempt to evaluate their extraction efficiency
A larger funnel extractor and a small-scale canister extractor based on the high-gradient principle of Macfadyen are described. The physical properties during extraction are reported. The emigration pattern of microarthropods differed between litter samples extracted by the funnel apparatus and soil samples extracted by the canister apparatus. It seems connected with the attainment of a critical soil-water potential. The extraction efficiency is evaluated by 1) comparisons between the two extractors, 2) comparison with a salt-water centrifugal flotation method, 3) release-recapture experiments, 4) estimation of non-extracted specimens left in the samples. Extraction efficiencies between 80-90% for Collembola, and more than 90% for Cryptostigmata and Mesostigmata are concluded on basis of the different methods. Differences are demonstrated between Collembolan species, but not between size classes within species. The paper contains a number of technical details, such as marking techniques, treatment of specimens following extraction and the description of a modification of Müller and Naglitsch's salt-water centrifugal flotation method.
Wire gauze size and the efficiency of Berlese-Tullgren funnels
Twenty composed soil samples were taken at random and introduced into Berlese-Tullgren funnels using containers with four different wire gauze sizes (0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.3 mm respectively). The total number of microarthropods (Y) increases with the pore size of the mesh (X) according to the equation Y = 112.5 (1 - e^-0.52X). A similar effect is detectable with the size of the largest specimens, especially in their widths.
A simple sample separation system based on flotation for small samples of insects contaminated with soil
An apparatus for separating insects and soft bodied organisms in small samples contaminated with soil is described . The sample to be separated is placed on a detachable sieve at the bottom of a separator cone. The unit is lowered into a saturated magnesium sulphate bath and the detachable sieve (containing the heavier fraction) is exchanged with an identical sieve. The unit then contains the separated insect sample.
Efficiency of arthropod extraction from soil cores
Soil cores (5 x I 5 cm) were heat-extracted in Tullgren-type funnels, then floated three consecutive times in a saturated sugar solution. The organic supernatant was decanted and searched for Collembola and Acari. Heat-extraction efficiency varied greatly between arthropod taxa, years, dates with in years, and single samples within sampling dates. Using Onychiuridae as an example, effects of sugar flotation on the accuracy of population density estimates were discussed.
Publisher: AMER ENTOMOL SOC 1900 BENJ FRANKLIN PARKWAY, PHILADELPHIA, PA 19103-1195 USA
Modification and application of soil sectioning method for ecological study of oribatid mites (Acari: Cryptostigmata) in sphagnum bog
For direct observation of the microhabitats and distribution of oriba­tid mites, sectioning method was attempted in sphagnum bog. Rhysotritia ardua (KOCH) was proved to be a "borer" into stem of sphagnum. Micro­habitats so closely contiguous as within 5 cm were found to be quite diffe­rent from each other and so were their inhabitants, oribatid mites. lt was confirmed that the method was indispensable for the investigation of the microhabitats of oribatid mites.
Ein sehr einfacher Ausleseapparat für terricole Tierformen
A heptane flotation method for recovering microarthropods from semiarid soils, with comparison to the Merchant-Crossley high-gradient extraction method and estimates of microarthropod biomass
A heptane extraction method for recovering microarthropods from arid soils is described. The heptane flotation method is shown to extract twice as many species and 4 times as many individuals from the same number of intact prairie soil cores as the commonly used Merchant-Crossley high-gradient extractor. Mechanical, technical, behavioral and temporal factors affecting high-gradient extraction of microarthropod taxa in arid soils are discussed. Estimates of soil microarthropod biomass in the shortgrass stoppe are revised upwards. The heptane flotation method is suggested as a standard to minimize discrepancies in the estimation of microarthropod population density and biomass in dryland soils with low organic contents, and for use in laboratory microcosm experiments.
On the extraction of oribatid mites through Tullgren apparatus with double porous discs
To avoid dropping of soil particles, a new type of Tullgren apparatus with "double porous discs" was devised by Aoki (1984). A comparison was made between the apparatus of the new type and the ordinary type in their extracting efficiency, and the following results were obtained. 1) The apparatus of the new type showed a low efficiency in extraction of some oribatid species such as Eohypochthonius crassisetiger, Protoribates sp. A, Fosseremus quadripertitus, Suctobelbella spp. and Epilohmannia pallida pacifica. 2) The species composition of oribatids extracted by new type was nearly similar to that by ordinary type. Therefore, use of the new apparatus for qualitative analysis is recommended.
Bodenbiologie: mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Tierwelt
Vorarbeiten zu einer quantitativen Auslesemethode für die bodenbewohnenden Gliedertiere
Une méthode de microflotation densimètrique complémentaire du BERLESE [in French]
Eine densimetrische Mikroflotationsmethode zur Ergänzung des Berleseverfahrens. Es wird eine Möglichkeit beschrieben, die nach der Berlese-Tullgren-Methode ausgelesenen Mikroarthropoden schnell von der zugleich mit den Tieren durchgefallenen Feinerde zu trennen.
We have designed and built a new kind of apparatus for extracting animals from woodland litter. High humidity is produced in the air just below the sample by evaporation from a bowl containing an aqueous solution or picric acid, cooled by a water bath and well-insulated from an infra-red lamp overhead. Very high gradients of temperature and relative humidity can be produced in this way. Extraction efficiency is high for arthropods except litter copepod and holometabolous insect larvae, but low for nematodes, enchytraeid worms, and snails.
Mezzo per separare gli Arthropodi raccolti col colletore Berlese dalla terra con essi
A two step centrifugation method with water and sucrose to separate mites from raw extracts of tullgren funnels
Tullgren funnels are commonly used when extracting mites from substrates for ecological and taxonomic studies. During this process, extracted mites are often contaminated with soil particles and other debris, making the processing of those organisms difficult, especially for the smaller mites, such as Tarsonemidae. The Water Sugar-Water (WSW) method, here described here, is intended to facilitate the separation of the extracted mites from those fouling material. It consists of a modification of the Jenkins method, used for the extraction of nematodes. Through a combination of centrifugation with two steps of floatation (first in water and then in 1.5 molar sucrose solution), this method separates mites from contaminants. In this study, the WSW method was tested in different conditions including three soil textures, two storage times (3 days or 6 months) and leaf litter. We also evaluated the possibility to use this method for separation of the broad mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) (Tarsonemidae), given its common occurrence in fields where the present work was conducted. Eight of nine treatments performed consistently well with extraction efficiencies >95% (mites collected in relation to total mites present in the funnel extraction), with no significant differences among them. One treatment, using the addition of kaolin clay to the sample, retained some Phytoseiidae in the sediment pellets, reducing extraction efficiency to 88.3%. Mites of the taxa Acaridae, Cunaxidae, Eupodidae, Laelapidae, Phytoseiidae, Scutararidae, Tarsonemidae, Tydeidae, Rhodacaroidea and Orbatida were successfully removed from contaminated samples with this method. The frequency of these taxa was equally distributed between the water and sugar-water steps of the two-step floatation method. This method is fast, uses inexpensive and nontoxic compounds and has great potential for use to determine the presence of mite groups most commonly found in extractions of Tullgren funnels.
Su un nuovo sistema di selezione particolarmente adatto per la raccolta in massa dei microartropodi [in Italian]
A Tullgren–type extractor for sampling springtails populations from small volume soil cores in high sample size
I investigated the accuracy and precision of a Tullgren–type extractor, modified to sample springtails populations from small volume soil cores in high sample size. Efficiency of the extractor was tested in two types of running procedures by putting known number of Folsomia candida (Willem) in the soil cores. The accuracy and precision depended highly on the running procedures, one of the loading types had sufficient reliability, whereas other conditions did make high variance in the efficiency. In the loading methods, when the temperature was slightly increased, both the accuracy and precision of the census technique was higher compared to that one, where temperature was enhanced abruptly. The construction of the extractor is detailed.
Mitteilungen aus Forstwirtschaft und Forstwissenschaft
Die Makrofauna der Waldstreu. Quantitative Untersuchungen in Beständen mit guter und schlechter Zersetzung des Bestandesabfalles [in German]
l. Die Makrofauna der Waldstreu ist durchaus standortsbedingt und -gebunden, insbesondere wird sie beeinflußt durch Art und Zersetzungszustand der Streu. JedeStreuart hat daher ihren eigenen, charakteristischen Faunentyp. 2. Der Unterschied zwischen den Streufaunentypen eines gleichen Klimagebietes ist hauptsächlich ein quantitativer. Meist sind gleiche oder nahe verwandte Tiere vorhanden, sie treten jedoch in den einzelnen Streuarten in sehr verschiedener Zahl auf. Die gut zersetzte bzw. leicht zersetzliche Streu beherbergt mehr und größere Tiere als die schlecht zersetzte bzw. schwer abbaufähige. 3. Der quantitative Unterschied bedingt verschiedene Leistungsfähi gkeit der Faunentypen beim Abbau der Bestandesabfallprodukte. Durchlüftungs- und Fraßtätigkeit sind in schlecht zersetzbarer bzw. schwer zersetzlicher Streu gering im Vergleich zu den überraschend hohen Leistungen in normal zersetzter. Der Tierfraß bewältigt in der sich gut zersetzenden Streu den Hauptanteil am Abbau der Bestandesabfallprodukte, wobei die Symbiose der Makrofauna und Mikroflora eine große Rolle spielen dürfte. Die Ergebnisse experimenteller Versuche berechtigten generell zu der Annahme, daß gerade die widerstandsfähigsten, kohlenstoffreichsten Bestandteile der Streu zunächst nur durch den Tierfraß und die Tätigkeit der Fadenpilze angegriffen und dadurch erst dem endgültigen bakteriellen Abbau zugänglich gemacht werden können. Wo der Tierfraß diese Stoffe nicht genügend angreift, kommt ihr Abbau ins Stocken 4. Die graphische Darstellung der jährlichen quantitativen Entwicklung der Streumakrofauna zeigt eine enge Übereinstimmung mit den Klimakurven. Hohe Streufeuchtigkeit bei genügender Wärme bietet der makroskopischen Streufauna optimale Lebensbedingungen. 5. Die Makrofauna der Waldstreu besitzt eine gewaltige Regenerationskraft und ist daher sehr widerstandsfähig gegen äußere Einflüsse. Vorübergehende Störungen wie etwa Freistellung (Kahlschlag) können ihr wenig oder nichts anhaben. Um so empfindlicher ist sie gegen Störungen und Stockungen in der Streuzersetzung. Die dadurch bedingte baldige Versauerung und Dichtlagerung des Bodens und Auflagehumusses verändern den Faunentyp in nachteiligster Form, seine Leistungsfähigkeit nimmt rasch ab, mit ihr sinkt wieder Intensität, und Tempo der Zersetzung. - Eine Verpflanzung der Makrofauna, gut zersetzter Streu in schlecht zersetzte zwecks Steigerung des Streuabbaus ist daher aussichtslos.
Soil Fauna Assemblages. Global to Local Scales
Approaches to studying soil fauna and its functional roles
Porównanie trzech metod ekstrakcji roztoczy glebowych
<translated from Polish summary> Efficiencies of three dynamic methods used for extraction of soil Acari and Collembola have been compared. Tullgren apparatus and the multipedocenoscope have been tested, while the third of the methods applied consisted intreating animals with a chemical compound - paradichlorobenzene spilled directly on a sample. Four series of experiments carried out have proven that, in case of Acari the MPCS is a devise with the best yields, Tullgren's funnels being less efficient. The method with paradichlorbenzene has appeared to be less efficient as regards both the total number of mites and springtails as well as particular species or groups of moss-mites regardless their body size. Collembola are driven away most numerous in Tullgren funnels. Besides, the experiments presented have shown the selectiveness of extraction in the MPCS and Tullgren's funnels as regards Oribatei. This selectiveness refers to the size of individuals and to thickness of their cuticle. The body length of 0,31 - 0,4 mm was the critical value. The moss-mites below this value are extracted more efficiently in the MPCS, whereas above better results are obtained in Tullgren funnels.
Extraction of arthropods from neotropical soils with a modified Kempson apparatus
A modified Kempson apparatus is described, the extraction procedure for arthropods in neotropical soils is given, and an example from Central Amazonia is presented.
Une méthode de lavage pour l’extraction des arthropodes terricoles
Evaluating the use of gel-based sub-sampling for assessing responses of terrestrial microarthropods (Collembola and Acari) to different slurry applications and organic matter contents
Microarthropods show considerable small-scale spatial variation, which on statistical grounds demands the use of numerous samples per experimental unit to obtain a representative density estimate. To avoid the identification of all individuals in these samples a sub-sampling technique is desirable. Due to various factors, existing sub-sampling methods perform sub-optimally when working with soil microarthropods. As an alternative, this study evaluated a gel-based sub-sampling method. The method was applied in a practical situation comparing effects of two existing methods of slurry manure application (injection of control slurry and the superficial application of slurry to which an additive was added) on soil inhabiting springtails and mites. In the experiment, special attention was paid to the mediating influence of soil organic matter content. The gel-based sub-sampling data showed a Poisson distribution, supporting randomness. Furthermore, none of the identified specimens showed morphological damage, strongly suggesting that neither gel-suspension nor amylase treatment had damaged the integuments of the specimens. Therefore, gel-based sub-sampling seems to offer an efficient and safe tool for sub-sampling microarthropods. Of the two slurry applications studied, the surface application of the slurry manure with the additive resulted in the highest abundances of microarthropods, with an average of 17,890 individuals m−2 in broadcasted fields, compared to 11,486 individuals m−2 in the slit injected fields. A positive correlation between microarthropod abundance and the organic matter content of the soil was found for the fields that were slit injected with unamended slurry. The specially prepared slurry treatment did not show the latter correlation, probably because of the a priori relatively high organic matter content of most fields receiving this treatment. The relative dominance of surface dwelling species in the superficially applied slurry with additive suggests that the microarthropods responded in particular to the method of slurry manure application rather than to slurry manure type.
Improvements in the gelatine-embedding technique for woodland soil and litter samples
Microcomputer-controlled extractor for soil microarthropods
A high-gradient extractor for soil microarthropods featuring computer-controlled temperature is described. The extractor's main distinctions are its accurate temperature control and independence from ambient temperature. It is automatic, and produces a graph for documentation of the temperature development during extraction. The drying efficiency of the extractor was investigated and found to be sufficient. Possible future improvements of temperature regimes and extractor design are discussed.
A quantitative technique for the extraction of soil-inhabiting mites (Acarina) and springtails (Collembola) associated with pod rot disease of peanut
A technique is described for rapid extraction of certain soil microfauna associated with the pod rot disease complex of peanut. It is suggested that greater consideration be given to all soil microfauna in studies or the ecology of soilborne pathogens.
The "Winkler/Moczarski" eclector as an efficient extractor for fungus and litter Coleoptera
The "Winkler/Moczarski" eclector as an efficient extractor for fungus and litter beetles is discussed. It does not work on the same principle as "Berlese/Tullgren" funnels, as generally assumed. A procedure is described for processing soil samples in eclectors to obtain good results.
Annales de la Société Royale Zoologique de Belgique
L’echantillonnage de la litiere des forets pour l’etude quantitative des populations d’Acariens et de Collemboles
L´extraction des Acariens et des Collemboles par l´appareil de Tullgren semble fournir une estimation satisfaisante de la densité de population de ces Arthropodes dans la litiére des forêts, à contition que les échantillons traités ne soient pas trop volumineux. Dans le milieu étudié qui ne comprend que la couche de litiére la plus superficielle, on obtient une estimation plus précise en exprimant les effectifs par unité de poids que par unité de surface des échantillons. Nous tenons à remercier trés vivement Monsieur le Professeur Debauche qui nous a suggéré ce problème, pour l`intérêt qu´il a porté à notre travail et pour les conseils qu´il nous a prodigués. Nous remercions également Monsieur E. Jal pour l´aide technique qu´il nous a apportée.
A funnel apparatus for the extraction of microarthropods from agricultural soils
A relatively simple and inexpensive arrangement of 40 Tullgren-type funnels currently being used to extract small arthropods from agricultural soil in the cotton growing area of the San Joaquin Valley of California is described. The funnels measure 30,5cm in diameter and 30,5cm deep, and have been used to extract arthropods from field soils of types ranging from fine sandy loam to adobe clay. The funnels are arranged in groups of 4 in wooden stands. An aluminium canopy covers each stand and support a single electric heat source which serves the entire apparatus. The operational dynamics of the system are discussed. Using a 100-W light bulb, the soil surface temperature within the funnels increased gradually during the period of operation, reaching about 52 degrees Celsius after 6 days.
Annals of the Entomological Society of America
An expedition grease film extractor for soil micro-arthropods
A modification of the Grease Film Extraction method of Aucamp and Ryke is described. This modification is particularly suitable for use in areas without proper laboratory facilities. A modification of the original technique is also described, which considerably reduces the amount of time needed to complete the extraction.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Thrips: Towards Understanding Thysanoptera
U.S. Deptartment of Agriculture, Forest Service
Soil sampling and extraction methods with possible application to pear thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
Techniques are described for the sampling and extraction of microarthropods from soil and the potential of these methods to extract the larval stages of the pear thrips, Taeniothrips inconsequens (Uzel), from soil cores taken in sugar maple stands. Also described is a design for an emergence trap that could be used to estimate adult thrips populations as they move from the forest floor into the tree canopy.
A trap design for combined insect emergence and soil arthropod extraction from soil
For insect sampling on large-scale field experiments or sites situated in difficult terrain, e. g. woodtands, it may be desirable to use techniques that allow more than one operation to be carried out simultaneously. Equipment should be lightweight, durable, easy to construct from readily available materials, and allow easy retrieval, transportation, and processing of samples. The following trap design attempts to combine the monitoring of insect emergence, with the extraction of soil arthropods from the same soil sample.
Suggested field procedures for collecting soil/litter arthropods in a tropical rainforest for long-term monitoring with DNA metabarcoding
Standardized field protocols to monitor the soil fauna exist but they are not tailored to surveys in tropical rainforests and not designated to obtain samples that can be later processed with metabarcoding. In general, the soil fauna is extracted by Berlese-Tullgren apparatus, while the litter-dwelling and more active fauna is better surveyed with Winkler extractors. Here, we used Berlese-Tullgren which represent the choice method for Collembola but included in our samples both soil and litter.
A modified technique for extracting live ticks from small soil and litter samples
Zur Verwendung von Kaltlicht und Heizrohr im Berleseautomaten
Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten (Pflanzenpathologie) und Pflanzenschutz
Quantifying variation of soil arthropods using different sampling protocols: Is diversity affected?
International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies
Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese-Tullgren funnels extractor
Construction and operation of a low cost Berlese-Tullgren funnels extractor for extraction of soil microarthropods is described. The extractor is efficiently and rapidly extracts flightless microarthropods from soil samples. It is constructed from materials readily available in the local market in India in which soil arthropods are forced by a temperature gradient to move from soil samples to the collecting tubes. It is economical and easy to procure as compared to the imported counterpart.
An opto-electronic sensor-ring to detect arthropods of significantly different body sizes
Arthropods, including pollinators and pests, have high positive and negative impacts on human well‐being and the economy, and there is an increasing need to monitor their activity and population growth. The monitoring of arthropod species is a time‐consuming and financially demanding process. Automatic detection can be a solution to this problem. Here, we describe the setup and operation mechanism of an infrared opto‐electronic sensor‐ring, which can be used for both small and large arthropods. The sensor‐ring consists of 16 infrared (IR) photodiodes along a semicircle in front of an infrared LED. Using 3D printing, we constructed two types of sensor‐ring: one with a wider sensing field for detection of large arthropods (flying, crawling, surface‐living) in the size range of 2–35 mm; and another one with a narrower sensing field for soil microarthropods in the size range of 0.1–2 mm. We examined the detection accuracy and reliability of the two types of sensor‐ring in the laboratory by using particles, and dead and living arthropods at two different sensitivity levels. For the wider sensor‐ring, the 95% detectability level was reached with grain particles of 0.9 mm size. This result allowed us to detect all of the macroarthropods that were applied in the tests and that might be encountered in pest management. In the case of living microarthropods with different colors and shapes, when we used the narrower sensor‐ring, we achieved the 95% detectability level at 1.1 mm, 0.9 mm, and 0.5 mm in the cases of F. candida, H. nitidus, and H. aculeifer, respectively. The unique potential of arthropod‐detecting sensors lies in their real‐time measurement system; the data are automatically forwarded to the server, and the end‐user receives pest abundance data daily or even immediately. This technological innovation will allow us to make pest management more effective.
A sampling device for soil microarthropods
1. A sampling tool and a high-gradient Berlese-type apparatus are described which will permit sampling and extraction of soil arthropods under conditions which easily may be duplicated for numbers of samples and which will be efficient for the majority of the microarthropods. 2. The efficiency of the high-gradient apparatus was compared to that of a standard Tullgren-type funnel with both kept in a constant environment. No difference in efficiency between the two types was found. 3. In terms of day-to-day recoveries of arthropods there is evidence that the action of the high-gradient apparatus is less harsh than that of the Tullgren apparatus. 4. The advantages of the high-gradient apparatus over the Tullgren funnel are those of compactness and greater control of the variables (temperature and humidity) which govern extraction efficiency.
Notes on the efficiency of funnel batteries for the extraction of soil micro-arthropods
Preliminary Report on a Grease Film Extraction Method for Soil Micro-Arthropods
Proceedings ot the 2nd International Congress of Acarology
The grease film extractor and its application in soil acarology
Progress in Soil Biology. Proceedings of the Colloquium on Dynamics of Soil Communities
Efficiency of the grease film extraction technique in soll micro-arthropod surveys
The efficiency of an improved grease film extractor in stratification studies of soil micro-arthropods
A new extraction apparatus for soil-microarthropoda, the grease film extractor, is described. The efficiency of this apparatus in the determination of the vertical distribution of micro-arthropods in soil is compared with that of the Macfadyen funnel battery with air conditioning. The results of the experiment clearly indicate that, except for the Trombidiformes, where no significant difference was found, the grease film extractor is superior for the extraction of micro-arthropods from soils.
Publisher: Academy of Science for South Africa (ASSAf)
Metabarcoding and mitochondrial metagenomics of endogean arthropods to unveil the mesofauna of the soil
1. Biological communities inhabiting the soil are among themost diversified, complex and yetmost poorly studied terrestrial ecosystems. The greatest knowledge gaps apply to the arthropod mesofauna (0 1–2 mmbodysize) because conventional morphological and molecular approaches are in many cases insufficient for the characterisation of these complex communities. The development of high-throughput sequencing (HTS) methodologies is required to solve current impediments and to further advance our understanding of below-ground biodiversity. 2. We propose a flotation–Berlese–flotation (FBF) protocol for sampling and specimen processing to obtain ‘clean’DNAextractions of arthropod mesofauna fromthe soil. In addition, we developed and testedHTS protocols for the characterisation of arthropod communities from these bulk DNA extractions using cox1 metabarcoding and shotgunmetagenomic sequencing on theMiSeq Illumina platform. 3. The FBF protocol providedDNAof soil arthropods fromsufficiently large volumes of soil and free from contaminating bacteria and inhibitors.Metabarcoding and metagenomic sequencing on two deep soil samples from Iberian grasslands revealed >100 species of Acari and Collembola from 28 families. Genome assembly straight from shotgun sequencing of bulk specimens produced partial and full mitogenomes for 54 species with average length of >6000 bp.Metabarcoding andmetagenomic sequencing resulted in closely congruent OTUs, but species numbers were highest with metabarcoding, while 73% of species were confirmed by matching shotgun sequence reads and 48%by contig assembly from those shotgun reads. 4. In combination, the FBF protocol together with the PCR-based and shotgun sequencing pipelines addressed most of the challenges of studying soil arthropodmesofauna on theMiSeq Illumina platform. They are powerful, cost-efficient tools for characterising soil diversity in a phylogenetic and community ecology context. These methodological developments of HTS approaches for the study of mesofauna will accelerate ecological and evolutionary studies, biomonitoring of soil arthropods, and progress in both theoretical and applied soil science.
Recomendações para Coleta de Artrópodes Terrestres por Armadilhas de Queda ("Pitfall-Traps").
Publisher: Seropédica: Embrapa Agrobiologia, 2006.
On the efficiency of extracting soil fauna from litter bags.
The efficiency of two extraction methods for the meso-and-macro faunas in litter bags was compared. Litter bags were placed on the soil surface of a tropical primary forest over latosol and collected at 15, 30 and 60 days intervals. The first method (dry extraction method) involved a brief manual extraction of the macroscopic fauna, followed by the placement of the leaves in Berlese-Tullgren funnels for extraction of the remaining fauna. The second method (wash and dry extraction method) involved washing of the leaves with distilled water using a squeeze bottle, followed by extraction of the remaining fauna by Berlese-Tullgren funnels. The second method revealed a much superior extraction efficiency in both density and diversity of groups captured, with the leaf-washing procedure alone extracting on average 94.1%ofthe total fauna and 93.1% ofthe groups encountered. The first method yielded 9608 specimens, with a mean of 7.4 groups/sample. The second method yielded 43944 specimens, with a mean of 13.2 groups/sample. While important groups such as Copepoda, Ostracoda, Enchytraeidae, and Nematoda were only rarely extracted when using the first method, they were frequent and abundantly captured with the second method. The most numerous groups extracted by the dry method were Acari, Collembola, Formicidae, Diplopoda, Isopoda, Copepoda, and Psocoptera; by the wash and dry method were Copepoda, Acari, Collembola, Enchytraeidae, Ostracoda, Nematoda, and Diptera.
Método alternativo ara estudar a fauna do solo
Study of soil organisms population may not detect differences of organisms number due to the difficulty of pitfall installation methods routinely used. However, to a better practice and determination of population level of soil organisms, it was evaluated an alternative methodology to the pitfall Tretzel (modified). The method is called Provid, for the collection of the soil organisms, proposed by the authors of this work. The two methods were installed in nine different areas, with three replication for each method. The areas differed in terms of location, soil type and vegetable covering. The appraised parameters were richeness, abundance and Simpson´s index. As results, it was not found significant statistical differences for the two methods of collection of organism´s edaphios among the nine analyzed areas, for the appraised parameters. Therefore, that the methodology of collection of the soil organisms for the Provid method can be used as efficient as the pitfall Tretzel modified method. The Provid method is practical and easy to be managed.
Soil biodiversity: myth, reality or conning?
The study of soil microarthropod biodiversity is illustrative of problems that are related to other soil organisms (fungi, for instance) or that can be found in other environments (canopy, oceanic sediments, hosts accommodating parasites, etc.). Indeed, the contribution of the soil fauna to global biodiversity remains an enigma even though, in recent years, it has received considerable attention. Our contention is that the debate on soil biodiversity will remain open – and even sterile – as long as adequate sampling methodologies are not set up, critically evaluated and largely used. First, a critical review of the sampling strategies used for soil microarthropods is presented. In addition to an extensive compilation of publications on extraction method efficiency, articles from two journals devoted to soil biology are compared for two five-year periods (before and after Erwin’s papers and before and after Rio). The most frequently used extraction methods (over 90% of studies) have a poor numerical efficiency (e.g. 7–26% for the Berlese-Tullgren funnels) and also are selective with respect to their efficiency for certain taxa (variable taxonomic and functional efficiency), 75% of studies are restricted to the upper 10 cm of soil and therefore overlook largely the microarthropod populations, some groups are often neglected, however diversified they are, and the taxonomic resolution tends to become impoverished in recent years. In the second part of our study, the importance of bias induced by inadequate or restricted sampling strategies on biodiversity estimates is evaluated: densities are dramatically underestimated (down to 14 times less); conversely species aggregation, a factor advocated to explain the existence of numerous soil species, is overestimated; some functional groups may be quite overlooked; the species distribution along a gradient deduced from the sampling may be rather different from that really existing in the soil and interfere with the evaluation of -diversity; species richness is often crudely underestimated (down to 50%). Overall, at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described. Obviously, much has still to be done to evaluate soil microarthropod biodiversity and a fortiori understand the mechanisms underlying it. Improving and renewing the soil sampling strategy is thus a prerequisite to any real advance in our knowledge of this fascinating and obscure domain.
Shuffling leaf litter samples produces more accurate precise snapshots of terrestrial arthropod community composition
Understanding the accuracy of sampling techniques is critical to accurate interpretation of local and global ecological patterns. Over the past 20 yr, Winkler leaf litter extractors have become one of the most common techniques used to collect terrestrial arthropods. Although the original description of this technique recommends the use of disturbance during extraction to increase extraction efficiency, most published studies do not follow this recommendation. Here we test experimentally how disturbing, or “shuffling” leaf litter during extraction affects collection efficiency for four groups of arthropods: ants, micro-Hymenoptera, beetles, and spiders. Our results show that extraction efficiency for abundance and richness of ants is increased with disturbance. Disturbance also improves extraction efficiency for beetle abundance, but does not affect micro-Hymenoptera and spider abundance or richness. Significantly, our results also demonstrate that shuffling litter can greatly reduce the variability of extraction efficiency between different sites. Because of this greater efficiency, we recommend use of the shuffling technique, when sampling leaf litter via Winkler extractors to maximize the collection of ants and beetles, especially for studies that compare abundance and richness across multiple sites.
Methods for the Examination of Organismal Diversity in Soils and Sediments
The use of baits and preservatives in pitfall traps
Pitfall traps containing baits and alcoholic preservatives were investigated, in the Solomon Islands and in South Australia, as methods for sampling ants and members of other groups that are active on the ground surface. Observations by previous workers that there may be attraction to preservatives used in traps were extended and a method of testing for it is suggested. Ants were not attracted to the preservatives used and when dealing with diverse ant faunas simple pitfalls appear to be preferable to baited traps.
Ekstrakcja mezofauny ze ściółki iglastej i gleby w aparacie Murphy’ego [in Polish]
At the Forest Research Institute in Warsaw the apparatus of Murphy’s type for mezofauna extraction from forest litter and soil samples has been developed. In the new construction some modification have been introduced. The sampling way in area has been modified, too. In the article the results of investigations aiming at determination of optimal mezofauna extraction way are presented. In the investigations the following has been taken into account: 1) moistening degree of the samples, 2) temperature above sample surface in the apparatus, 3) extraction duration, 4) conditions of the apparatus ventilation during extraction. It has been found that for particular groups of mezofauna optimal extracting conditions are different. On the whole, much greater number of individuals were caught off from the litter and soil samples in a closed apparatus (Tab. 14). For most mezofauna groups the best results of the extraction were obtained at the temperature of 30°C (Tab. 15). Only at extracting Collembola out of litter better results were obtained at the temperature of 25°C. An influence of moistening degree of the samples on extraction course has been proved. The best results in the above extraction conditions have been obtained when moistening degree of the sample did not exceed 40 - 50%. Hence, practically it is to avoid to take samples for extraction during or closely after heavy rainfalls. In the conditions optimal for the majority of groups (30°C and closed apparatus) of extraction tiny invertebrates from forest litter, a considerable amount of them went out within the first extraction hour, the maximum occurring between the 5th and 24th hour. Similarly, the majority of mezofauna leaved humus samples within the first hour, but at the maximum between the 24th and 48th hour (Fig. 6). At optimal conditions, extraction could be regarded as finished after 72 hours. The investigations on extracting longer than 72 hours have been found unpurposeful due to a possibility of considerable quantitative changes of mezofauna inside the samples morality. 502 M. Górny, E. Chilarecki In all the experiment variants a distinct break of curves illustrating average per cent of individuals in particular systematic groups due to the hour of the extraction, between the first and the fifth hour of extraction. This fact suggests the probability of different response of individuals from lower systematic units of animals (genera, species) to the ligth, temperature and moisture stimuli applied. In the light of the above conclusions, the technique recommended by Murphy of extracting mezofauna (concering the heath mezofauna) from litter samples at the temperature of 20 - 25°C and from humus samples at the temperature of 30 - 35°C, distinctly differs from the results presented above, though it constituted a starting point for our investigations.
Measuring Arthropod Biodiversity: A Handbook of Sampling Methods
Sampling Methods for Soil and Litter Fauna
The soil is an important resource for several ecosystem and biosphere processes. Yet, soil biology is challenged with the identification of many and diverse species and to understand the specific role organisms play, how they are organized, and how they respond to changing environmental conditions. Within this context, there is no universal tool or method that can be applied to a comprehensive study of all the soil and litter fauna that can be found across all soil types and environmental conditions around the globe. Thus, the type of sampling system used for any soil investigation must be carefully planned as an integral part of the study. In this chapter, we review numerous techniques and approaches to evaluate and quantify the influences of soil and litter fauna and provide methodological considerations for ecological studies of soil fauna with emphasis on the study of the decomposition process. The study of soil ecology and health remains a relevant field of research. We hope this review of methodologies for the study of soil and litter fauna will help elucidate the most appropriate technique to use based on resources at hand, organism of interest, and habitat characteristics.
A modified heat extractor for separating arthropods from deciduous woodland litter
A modified heat extractor designed for extracting low density arthropods from large sample of woodland litter is described. The extractor is easy and cheap to construct, portable, and each of the twenty units can be used independantly. Temperature and desiccation gradients in sample units of beech leaf litter and humus during an eight day extraction regime are demonstrated, and the efficiency of extraction op pseudoscorpions is discussed.
Methods of Soil Zoological Studies [in Russian]
Taking censuses of microarthropods (microfauna) and nematodes [in Russian]
A short review of methods to estimate population density of soil microarthropods and nematodes are given. The simplest and most commonly used methods for extracting microarthropods are various modifications of Berlese-Tullgren's funnels, for counting nematodes - modified Baermann's funnels.
Analyse des données multidimensionnelles appliquée à l'étude de diverses méthodes d'échantillonnage des arthropodes terrestres du milieu souterrain superficiel
The objective description of the terrestrial arthropod content of the superficial underground compartment of various sampling realized by 4 extraction technics (funnel, trap, eye hunting, flotation) in 3 different sites (Ariège, France) for 6 sampling periods (May to October) allows the authors to show: - the selective nature of every sampling technic, in relation to the morphology and ethology of the considered species; - the influence of the sampling period in relation to the seasonal cycles; - the similarity of the studied sites concerning the collected fauna, reflecting the similarities among the populations; - the principal interactions between the various factors.
Bulletin de la Société d'histoire naturelle de Toulouse
An opto-electronic sensor for detecting soil microarthropods and estimating their size in field conditions
Methods to estimate density of soil-dwelling arthropods efficiently, accurately and continuously are critical for investigating soil biological activity and evaluating soil management practices. Soil-dwelling arthropods are currently monitored manually. This method is invasive, and time- and labor-consuming. Here we describe an infrared opto-electronic sensor for detection of soil microarthropods in the size range of 0.4–10 mm. The sensor is built in a novel microarthropod trap designed for field conditions. It allows automated, on-line, in situ detection and body length estimation of soil microarthropods. In the opto-electronic sensor the light source is an infrared LED. Two plano-convex optical lenses are placed along the virtual optical axis. One lens on the receiver side is placed between the observation space at 0.5–1 times its focal length from the sensor, and another emitter side lens is placed between the observation space and the light source in the same way. This paper describes the setup and operating mechanism of the sensor and the control unit, and through basic tests it demonstrates its potential in automated detection of soil microarthropods. The sensor may be used for monitoring activities, especially for remote observation activities in soil and insect ecology or pest control.
Sampling problems and the validity of life history analyses of pseudoscorpions
1. The numbers of pseudoscorpions obtained from monthly samples of leaf litter depends on (a) the condition of the psendoscorpions, (b) the efficiency and possible bias of the Tullgren funnel extraction technique, (c) the vertical movements of individuals between litter and soil. 2. Each of these prerequisites for the judgment of the reliability of the data is reviewed and it is concluded that (a) only free-living individuals are extracted by Tullgren funnels, not those encased in silken chambers built for moulting, hibernation and brood purposes, (b) the efficiency of the Tullgren funnels is higher and the bias lower than in other methods, (c) a winter migration from litter to soil occurs. 3. Two common seasonal changes in the densities of pseudoscorpions in litter cannot be accounted for in terms of either mortality or recruitment in a single generation. Thus (a) the observed decrease in density over the period November-March is explained in terms of migration into the soil and/or hibernation and (b) the observed decrease in the density of females is attributed to their presence in chambers built for brood purposes. 4. On this basis the data from six British species of pseudoscorpions (C. ischnocheles, C. tenuis, N. muscorum, M. cambridgei, R. lubricus and. A. dubius) can be satisfactorily interpreted and previous work is reviewed. The life cycle is univoltine in all six species but a bivoltine life cycle has been identified in the case of N. muscorum studied in S.W. England. 5. Differences in the life history are attributed to (a) females not building brood chambers (A. dubius), (b) protonymphs which are not free-living (R. lubricus, C. tenuis), (c) the time at which the new generation is produced since this leads to different proportions of the nymphal stages over-wintering and thus either all nymphal stages over-winter (e.g. C. ischnocheles) or only deuto- and tritonymphs (e.g. M. cambridgei). 6. One problem unanswered concerns the complete separation of the different generations of adults. In the laboratory adults are known to live for two-five years and, from field observations, it can be inferred (C. ischnocheles) that only about 40 % of the extant adults belong to the newly matured generation. 7. The significance and the implications of extending the adults duration of life are considered in relation to (a) the possibility that it facilitates dispersal by means of the phoretic habit and (b) its possible consequences in a bivoltine life cycle which may result in a partial isolation of generations.
Oribatid mite extraction efficiency of the Fukuyama apparatus, a perpendicular-type extracting apparatus using a commercial disposable heater
Publisher: The Acarological Society of Japan
Journal of the Acarological Society of Japan
Tempo de Captura de Organismos da Mesofauna do Solo e Seus Reflexos na Interpretação de Índices da Comunidade Edáfica
Soil mesofauna consists of organisms that measure from 0.100 μm to 2 mm, being important to evaluate methods employed for its characterization. The objectives of this study were to define how long the soil material must remain in the Berlese-Tullgren extraction device to capture organisms of the mesofauna and determine the minimum extraction time for correct use of the Shannon, Simpson, Pielou, and Margalef indices used to evaluate the diversity, dominance, and richness of the mesofauna communities. The study was conducted at the Department of Soil Science at the Institute of Agronomy of the Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in highly anthropic land. Experimental plots were set up with the following treatments: jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis), velvet bean (Mucuna aterrima), Ceará bravo bean (Canavalia brasiliensis), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), and spontaneous vegetation in a Latin square design. Samples were collected from each of the experimental units, made up of plant litter and soil material in the first 5 cm of topsoil the day before planting legumes (October), and, subsequently, at the time of cutting plant shoots (March). The samples were subjected to a battery of the Berlese-Tullgren type funnels for a period of 15 days, performing a daily count of organisms. From the count and group-level identification (Order/Family) of the captured organisms, the Margalef, Simpson, Shannon, and Pielou indices were determined and verified by Kendall rank correlation between the values obtained from one day to the next until the 8th day of extraction, using the Shannon index as a reference. From the study, it may be concluded that it is possible to reduce the time the material samples remain in the Berlese-Tullgren funnels, but adoption of a time less than six days is not recommended to determine the composition of the soil mesofauna or to obtain more consistent and reliable data for evaluating diversity indices when using this procedure.
Suggested improvements in the Salt and Hollick flotation extraction process for soil micro-arthropods
Two modifications to the Salt and Hollick flotation extraction process for removing soil micro-arthropods from soil are described: 1. An apparatus is described whereby the magnesium sulphate solution is poured into, and emptied out of, the flotation vessel by raising and lowering a reservoir tank on a vertical framework, the reservoir being connected to the flotation vessel by a flexible supply pipe. The flotation vessel is attached to a tilting cradle half-way up the vertical framework. The air supply pipe which blows air bubbles through the magnesium sulphate and the magnesium sulphate supply pipe both pass through a cap, with a screw thread which is screwed on to the aperture at the bottom of the flotation vessel. 2. The method of overflowing the benzene layer containing micro-arthropods from a conical flask is improved by fixing a right-angled glass tube on the neck of the conical flask. The benzene flows through this tube into a petri-dish lying on a platform next to the flask. The necessity for washing arthropods off the sides of the flask is thus obviated.
Methodisches zur Ermittlung der Siedlungsdichte von Bodentieren aus Quadratproben und Barberfallen
During investigations into the soil fauna of beech wood litter mould in Ettlingen municipal Forest near Karlsruhe (Baden-Württemberg) the macrofauna was determined by hand sorted quadrats and pitfall traps. Quadrats yield direct population density values. Their precision depends on the efficiency of sorting, their representativity on the sample size. The efficiency was tested by sorting the same sample three times. Efficiency “E” of hand sorting for macro- and mesofauna lies between 63% (Dipteran larvae) and 100% (Gastropoda, Opiliones, Dermaptera); for mesofauna it is inadequate. The representivity “R” of a sample was assessed using means and standard deviations of three parallel samples of 1/9m2 x R = 1 — s/x, with values between 0.72 (Entomobryidae) and 0.97 (Enchytraeidae), is good to very good for the individual-rich macrofaunal groups. For the poorly represented groups the representivity is bad, with values of 0.56 (Pseudoscorpiones) and 0.48 (Dermaptera), and inadequate for the megafauna, values under 0.22 (Lumbricidae, Gastropoda). On the whole results of hand sorted quadrats multiplied by 1/E are a good estimate of the real abundance of these animal groups. The activity density, detected by pitfall traps, is essentially a product of locomotive activity and population density. To relate activity density to population density pitfall traps were gradually increased from 5 to 9 to 21 to 41 traps per plot to empty a 3 m x 3 m area and to determine the range or catch area of a single pitfall trap. The catch area varies for each species, but species can be combined roughly by group and size class. In the two most frequent groups, beetles and spiders, there was no emptying effect for the smaller species. A catch area of ca. 1 m2 could be estimated for the bigger beetles with body length greater than 7mm — mainly Carabidae — and ca. 0.7 m2 for spiders with body length more than 6 mm — mainly Agelenidae.
Meddelanden Från Statens Skogsforskninginstitut
Meddel från Statens skogsforskningsinstut
Något am Insamlingsmetodiken vid markfaunaundersökninger - Über die Einsammlungsmethodik bei Untersuchungen der Bodenfauna [in Swedish]
Während der letzten etwa 25 Jahre sind automatische Einsammlungsapparate bei quantitativen Untersuchungen über Bodenfauna in grossem Umfang benutzt worden. Die Effektivität dieser Apparate ist jedoch nie näher untersucht worden. Diese Frage ist aber sehr wichtig, und Verf. hat daher einen Versuch gemacht, darüber einigermassen zur Klarheit zu kommen. Gleichzeitig wurde ein Vergleich zwischen zwei verschiedenen Probegrössen gemacht. Untersuchungsgebiet. Versuchspark Svartberget, Kirchsp. Degerfors, Prov. Västerbotten in Nordschweden. Ziemlich gut geschlossener Fichtenwald mit eingesprengten Kiefern und Laubbäumen. In der Feldschicht dominieren Vaccinium myrtillus und V. vitis idaea. Die Bodenschicht besteht aus deckenden Moosen, in erster Linie Hylocomium splendens. Der Humustyp ist fibröser Mor (= Rohhumus), die Tiefe der Humusdecke ist 3,5-5cm) pH za 4-5,3 in der F-Schicht, 3,8-4 in der H-Schicht. Methodik. Aus einem Humusstück wurden Proben drei versehiedener Grössen ausgeschnitten: I) 100 cm3 (unten A-Proben genannt), 2) 24 cm3 (B-Proben), 3) 1 cm3 (C-Proben). A-Proben wurden mit grösseren, B-Proben mit kleineren Trichterapparaten behandelt. Die C-Proben wurden direkt in Glastöpfe mit Alkohol überführt und ihr Tierbestand mit Hilfe eines Präpariermikroskops herausgenommen. Von A- und B-Proben wurden je 5 Stück untersucht, von C-Proben je 5 Stück aus dem obersten Teil der Humusdecke (C 1-Proben) und 4 Stück aus ihrem untersten Teil (C 2-Proben). Quantitativer Vergleich der Proben. Eine Übersicht über die Abundanz der Tiere in den verschiedenen Probetypen wird in Tab. 2 gegeben. Nur die Arthropoden sind berücksichtigt worden. Die Oribatiden sind in dick- und dünnhäutige aufgeteilt: zu den ersteren sind Imagines, zu den letzteren alle Jungformen sowie Ex. von den Gattungen Palaeacarus und Brachychthonius und auch zwei Arten der Acaridiae gerechnet. Die Fauna der A-Proben umfasst im Mittel I5 Ex. pro cm3. Die Acariden machen etwa 71 % die Collembolen 27 % aus. Die dünnhäutigen Oribatiden überwiegen über die dickhäutigen mit nur gut 1 Ex. pro m3. Die B-Proben enthalten im Mittel etwa 6 Ex. pro cm3 mehr als die A-Proben. Die Acariden weisen die grösste Zunahme auf, was vor allem darauf beruht, dass kleine Trombidiiden und dünnhäutige Oribatiden in grösseren Mengen vorkommen. In den C-Proben (Tab. 3) sind die Individuenzahlen bis auf eine Probe grösser als die Maximalzahlen der A- und B-Proben. Im Mittel kommen hier 58,3 Ex. pro cm3 vor. Die Mittelzahl der A-Proben ist nur etwa 1/4 , der B-Proben etwa 1/3 von der C-Proben, was auch so ausgedruckt werden kann, dass das Verlustprozent der A-Proben 74, der B-Proben 64 ist. Die Collembolen, die dünnhäutigen Oribatiden und die "übrigen Arthropoden" haben die grössten Verluste erlitten. Das Verhältnis zwischen dünn- und dickhäutigen Oribatiden ist in den C-Proben ungefähr 1:4, in den Trichterproben 1: höchstens 2. Um ein anderes Mass für den Tierbestand als die Individuenzahl zu erhalten, wurde ein Versuch gemacht, das Volumen der Tiere zu berechnen (wegen des schnellen Austrocknens der Bodentiere ist es weniger geeignet, das Gewicht festzustellen). Zuerst wurde das Tiermaterial in verschiedene Körperformengruppen aufgeteilt. Innerhalb jeder Gruppe wurde ein Ex. mit Hilfe eines Okularmikrometers in verschiedenen Richtungen gemessen. Auf Basis der dabei erhaltene Masse wurde dann ein stark vergrössertes Modell aus Modellierton gemacht, dessen Volumen durch Versenkung in Wasser in einem Messglas bestimmt wurde. Nachdem man die Länge der übrigen Ex. gemessen hat, kann ihr Volumen gemäss der nachstehenden Formel bestimmt werden: (Formel nicht einzutragen).... und das Volumen und die Länge des Modells, v2 und l2 das Volumen und die Länge des dem Volumen nach zu bestimmenden Exemplares bezeichnen. - Die Formengrupppentypen dieses Materials sind auf S. 8 angegeben. Die Volumbestimmungen sind in Tab.4 wiedergegeben. Das durchschnittliche Verlustprozent der A- und B-Proben ist hier viel kleiner, was seine Erklärung in der Spalte über das Mittelvolumen der Tierexemplare erhält. Dieses Volumen steigt mit zunehmender Probegrösse. Daraus dürfte hervorgehen, dass vor allem die kleinen Tierformen bei der Behandlung mit Trichterapparaten zugrunde gehen und daher in den diesbezüglichen Proben stark unterrepräsentiert werden. Daneben ist es selbstverständlich von Bedeutung, dass die grösseren Proben mehr grosse Tiere als die kleineren enthalten können. Qualitativer Vergleich der Proben. Wegen Schwierigkeiten der Bestimmung können nur die Gamasiden, Oribatiden (inkl. 2 Acaridiae-Arten) und ColIembolen verglichen werden. Von diesen Gruppen sind 68 Arten angetroffen, worden, von denen 47 Arten den Probetypen A und B gemeinsam sind. Die A-Proben enthaIten im Mittel 37,8, die B-Proben 27,4 Arten pro Probe. Die Arten, die nur in einer der Probetypen vorkommen, treten jedoch akzidentell und vereinzeIt auf und spielen daher keine Rolle für die Charakterisierung der Fauna. Die C-Proben sind selbstverständlich zu klein für eine qualitative Beurteilung. Die C1-Proben haben im Mittel 12,2, die C2-Proben 8 Arten pro Probe. Für 22 Arten ist die Konstanz dieselbe in den A- und den B-Proben. Die übrigen Arten sind meistens etwas konstanter in A als in B, aber gewöhnlich nicht viel, so dass man sagen kann, dass 90% der Arten ungefähr dieselbe Konstanz in den beiden Probetypen haben. 50 Arten gehören in sämtlichen Proben den zwei niedrigsten Abundanzgruppen an, sie kommen also vereinzeit bis spärlich vor und sind niemals dominierend. Die übrigen sind dominerend in wenigstens einer oder einigen Proben (Tab. 5). Von besonderem Interesse sind folgende 5 Arten: Brachychthonius simplex Forssl., Oppia neerlandica Oud., Willemia anophthalma Börn., Onychiurus affinis Ågren und Isotoma minor Schäff. Sie sind die individuenreichsten Arten mit 100 % Konstanz sowohl in A als in B und sind dominierend in sämtlichen Proben (siehe S. 14). Aus dem Gesagten dürfte hervorgehen, dass die kleineren B-Proben ein ebenso gutes Bild von der Zusammensetzung der Fauna geben wie die grösseren A-Proben. Betreffs der Abundanz geben sie sagar ein besseres Resultat. Auch in den kleinen C-Proben nehmen die in den A- und B-Proben individuenreichsten Arten die ersten Plätze ein. Hier ist jedoch zu bemerken, dass die Abundanzzahl der O. neerllandica nur Erwachsene Individuen umfasst; mit den jetzt unbestimmbaren Nymphen ist die Art sicher die individuenreichste. Die Abundanz ist hier viel höher als in A und B. Zweifellos beruht dies darauf, dass sehr viele Tiere beim Austrocknen der Proben in den Trichterapparaten getötet werden. Die Resistenz der meisten Bodentiere gegen niedrige Luftfeuchtigkeit dürfte sehr gering sein (vgl. z.B. AGRELL 1941 S. 107). Der Trichter als Fehlerquelle. Nicht alle Tiere, die durch das Sieb fallen, gelangen in die Spiritusschale. Ziemlich viele bleiben an der Innenseite des Trichters sitzen. Dies gilt vor allem von den Trombidiiden und den dunnhäutigen Oribatiden (Tab. 6). Man kann diese z. B. durch vorsichtiges Fegen mit einer Hühnerfeder in die Schale bringen. Auslesezeit. Die A-Proben waren nach 3 Tagen, die B-Proben nach 2 Tagen ausgelesen. Die Temperatur war während der Versuchszeit I5,3-18°, die; relative Luftfeuchtigkeit 52,8-68%. Schlusswort. Es dürfte klar sein, dass man bei Bodenfaunauntersuchungen mit Hilfe der Trichterapparate keine zuverlässigen quantitativen Resultate erhält. Diese Methode muss durch andere Methoden, die sich nicht auf das Austrocknungsprinzip gründen, ergänzt werden, um so mehr als man auch andere Tiere und Würmer, Rotatorien u. a.) als die Gliedertiere berücksichtigen muss. Welche Methoden hierbei die geeignetsten sind muss experimentell untersucht werden.
Fluctuations in natural populations of Collembola and Acarina
1. Fluctuations occur in populations of saprophagous Collembola and mites during the winter. These fluctuations do not appear to be explained by environmental changes. 2. The present investigation concerns such a population inhabiting tussocks of the grass Bromus erectus. The general features of the habitat are described as well as the environmental features in the structure of Bromus tussocks which affect their fauna. 3. Samples were taken of whole tussocks and of parts of tussocks and the fauna extracted by a Berlese funnel and Tullgren funnels respectively. 4. The predominant groups present are the Collembola and Acarina. The Collebolan Pseudachorutes subcrassus is the most abundant species, the next in importance being two mites, Hypochthonius pallidulus and Asca aphidioides. 5. Moisture is of great importance for the existence of this fauna and the drying up or wetting of different regions of the tussocks causes migrations of certain species within them. 6. An experiment is described which suggests that abundant moisture in their food is essential to small saprophagous Arthropod since it would appear that their method of feeding is mainly suctorial. 7. A fluctuation of the population, with increases in November and December, early February and late February, with intervening minima, was shown to characterize the Collembola and Acarina (except possibly species of the Thrombidiform group). 8. The February minimum was shown to correspond with period of high evaporation rate, during which contrary winds destroyed the tussock structure. Discussion of other fluctuation is reserved for a later publication.
Detecting Soil Microarthropods with a Camera-Supported Trap
There is an increasing need to monitor activity and population growth of arthropods; however, this is a time-consuming and financially demanding process. Using sensors to detect arthropods in the field can help to follow their dynamics in time. Improving our earlier device, we developed a new camera-supported probe to detect soil microarthropods. An opto-electronic sensor ring detects the caught microarthropod individuals what activates a camera. The camera takes pictures of a specimen when it arrives in the camera chamber. A vacuum device was built into the probe which pumps up the specimen from the probe to a sample container. Here, we describe the construction and operation of the probe. We investigated the precision of the process in a laboratory experiment using living microarthropods and evaluated the accuracy of the probes in a semi-natural investigation when environmental noise was present. Under semi-natural conditions, the percentages of success, i.e., the photographed specimens compared to the caught ones, were between 60% and 70% at the investigated taxa. The automatic camera shooting helped in distinguishing insects from irrelevant detections while collecting the trapped insects allowed species-level determination. This information together serves as a basis for the automatic visual recognition of microarthropod species.
Studies on soil arthropods particularly in relation to population assessment
An international survey of methods used by soil zoologists to extract arthropods from soil was made to determine details of the apparatus and the ways in which they were most commonly used. The relative efficiency of eleven of the most representative extraction methods were compared for the major groups of soil arthropods on a clay-loam soil under woodland, pasture and fallow habitats. Dynamic or behavioural methods were more efficient than mechanical methods for extracting the active stages of most arthropod groups, but the relative efficiency of mechanical methods improved on fallow soil. The Macfadyen high-gradient funnel apparatus was outstandingly efficient for extracting most arthropod groups from the soil in each habitat. The relative efficiency of two contrasting methods, commonly used to extract a wide range of soil arthropod species, were compared on sand, peat and three clay soil types. A dry-funnel method, the Rothamsted Berlese-Tullgren funnel apparatus and a wet-sieving and flotation method, the Salt and Mollick washing apparatus, were compared on woodland, pasture and fallow arable sites on each of the soil types. Most soil arthropods were extracted in greater numbers by the dry-funnel method than by the wet-sieving method. Onychiurid Collembola were usually extracted an significantly greater numbers by the wet-sieving method and by mechanical methods generally. Large arthropods such as diptera larvae, beetles, root aphids, thrips and spiders and podurid Collembola were also extracted relatively efficiently by most mechanical methods, particularly on the fallow arable sites where there was less undecomposed plant material in the soil. The comparison on fen-peat soil showed that the Salt and Hollick method was not always less efficient than the dry-funnel method on soils with high organic matter content, but the amount of time spent extracting arthropods from this soil by the Salt and Hollick method and the difficulties of distinguishing arthropods that were alive from those that were dead at the time of sampling, made the method impractical. The mechanical methods always recovered arthropods in a damaged condition, unsuitable for detailed identification, freezing the soil samples during storage was considered to contribute to this damage. Various factors that affect the efficiency of dynamic extraction methods were investigated. Extraction efficiency was greatest when soil cores were placed intact and in an inverted position on funnel sieves, compared with soil cores orientated in other ways, or broken into pieces before placing them onta the funnel sieve. Greater depths of soil in the funnel sieve decreased efficiency of extraction of onychiurid Collembola and Diptera larvae, but different diameters of soil cores had little effect. Light and heat combined, extracted greater numbers of most arthropods than did heat alone. Alcohol as a collecting fluid in the dry-funnel method usually extracted more arthropods than did water, but water and picric acid extracted more Diptera larvae than did alcohol. Storing grassland cores for up to four weeks at 5 degrees C prior to extraction by dry-funnel methods did not significantly affect the numbers of arthropods recovered. An automatic collecting device for dry-funnel methods was devised and emergence patterns of arthropods were examined under different temperature regimes. Different arthropod groups emerged in two peak periods, when soil temperatures increased and a critical level of soil moisture content was reached. The most suitable extraction methods for extracting different groups of arthropods are summarised.
System for Extracting Corn Rootworm Larvae from Soil Samples
A system composed of a soil washing apparatus and differential flotation methods for extracting 2nd-, and 3rd-instar corn rootworms, Diabrotica spp., from soil samples is described. Tests demonstrated that this system had a 93.4% overall retrieval efficiency and that 2 persons could process ca. 100, 1.4-liter soil samples/day.
Biodiversity Science Board of Canada, Ecological Monitoring and Assessment Network, Burlington, Ontario
Protocols for measuring biodiversity: arthropod monitoring in terrestrial ecosystems
Scientific Proceedings for the Royal Dublin Society B
An improved method for extracting leatherjackets from soil and an evaluation of the Maercks method
An improved type of apparatus for extracting Leatherjackets from soil samples is described. In an extractability test it was found more efficient, more convenient to handle and requires less time to operate than the Standard Salt & Hollick machine. A test on the Maercks (1943) method of estimating numbers in samples was carried out with the new apparatus. It was found that the Maercks method was 91% efficient and therefore suitable for routine estimation of Leatherjacket populations in large numers of samples.
A new method for mite extraction from leaf samples
Debris often hampers the detection of mites in washed leaf samples. We describe in detail a method for the extraction of mites from leaf samples, based on the adherence of mite cuticles to liquid paraffin, at the interface of paraffin and ethanol in a so-called mite-counting channel. We demonstrate its efficacy by comparing the mite numbers in samples before and after extraction. We illustrate the method’s reliability by extracting known numbers of a taxonomic variety of plant-inhabiting mites, manually added to mite-free debris: for 13 of the 15 taxa all mites were retrieved. This method can also be used to extract small non-mite arthropods such as scales, whiteflies, thrips, cicadellids, hymenopteran parasitoids and psyllids.
A new, simple technique for extraction of mites, using the difference in density between ethanol and saturated NaCl (Preliminary note)
An new floating method for extracting mites from house-dust, cultures etc ..., using ethanol 80 % and aqueous saturated NaCl, is described. An average of 97 to 98 % of the mites is extracted.
Report on Forest Research for the Year Ending March 1950
Investigations on the fauna of forest humus layers
Methods of extracting arthropods from soil are discussed. Ecological studies were made in 6 forest sites and the seasonal fluctuation of the arthropod fauna was investigated in a spruce stand.
The efficacy of a modified Berlese funnel method for the extraction of ectoparasites and their life stages from the nests of the African Penguin Spheniscus demersus
The Berlese funnel method, and its variations, is commonly used for the extraction of arthropods from various substrates such as nest material. However, little is known about its effectivity in extracting ectoparasites from penguin nests. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of a modified Berlese funnel method in extracting ectoparasites from African Penguin Spheniscus demersus nests and to determine differences in extraction capacity across parasite taxa and life stages. African Penguin nests (n = 278) were sampled at five penguin colonies along the south-west coast of South Africa in 2017. Nest samples were subjected to a modified Berlese funnel method with naphthalene as a repellent. Thereafter, all remaining ectoparasites were removed by hand sorting. Ectoparasite abundance was positively correlated between the two extraction methods (Spearman’s r = 0.73–0.89). Compared to total counts, flea (combined life stages and larvae) and total ectoparasite abundance and prevalence were significantly lower with the modified Berlese funnel method. In addition, adult flea and tick prevalence (but not abundance) was significantly lower with the modified Berlese funnel method compared with total counts. The modified Berlese funnel method fails as a quantitative method and can only provide a crude indication of the incidence of ectoparasites in penguin nests.
Ostrich - Journal of African Ornithology
Untersuchungen über die Auslesemethoden beim Studium der Bodenfauna
Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique d´Egypte
Effect of electric light colours in extracting soil arthropods
(1) Six electric light colours were adopted. By means of each light colours for extracting soil Collembola, soil mites and adult Coleoptera. (2) The normal electric light proved to be more suitable than other light colours for extracting soil Collembola, soil mites and adult Coleoptera. (3) When wishing to extract other soil arthropod groups, the colour of electric light to be used must be experimentally chosen.
Comparison between a wet and a dry method for extraction of soil arthropod fauna
Beitrag zur Gewinnung von Kleintieren aus Böden mit Hilfe eines verbesserten Auslese‐Apparates
Soil-washing apparatus for recovery of tabanid larvae and other invertebrates
A description and illustrations are provided for construction of a portable rack for washing salt marsh soil and vegetation to recover invertebrates. A portable gasoline-powered pump is used to wash the samples through two sizes of wire mesh with the water being sprayed from above and below the sample.
A mechanized washing method for separation of invertebrates from soil
The sampling and extraction of Symphyla from soil
Details are given of methods of field sampling and extraction of Symphyla inhabiting soil. Flotation is considered to be the most suitabel extraction method. Hand-sorting is unsatisfactory and Tullgren funnels should only be used for samples having a high organic-matter content. Two flotation methods are desribed, one of which is a simple technique designed for use under field conditions. The second is a modification of the Ladell method; flotation is carried out in sodium chloride solution, the liquid being agitated by compressed air which enters through the floor of the flotation vessel.
An improved method for extracting arthropods from the soil
Academic Press and Butterworths Scientific Publications
Soil sampling for symphylids and a note on populations
Symphylids are cosmopolitan animals. They are well distributed through the upper layers of the soil. They may penetrate deep but they can only use preexisting cracks. A simple flotation method for their extraction from the soil is given; this is superior to funnel methods. The distribution of symphylids in the soil is non-random. They are most numerous in soils with an open structure and a good organic content. There may be considerable fluctuations in populations but at corresponding times in different years populations appear to show close agreement. Outdoors, up to more than 20 million syphilids per acre have been estimated; under glass the population may sometimes be four times this.
Proceedings of the University of Nottingham. Second Easter School in Agricultural Science
Publication sous les Auspices du Comité Français du Programme Biologique International
Problèmes d´Éologie: L´Échantillonnage des Peuplements Animaux des Milieux Terrestres
Échantillonage des Microarthropodes du Sol
Optimizing for taxonomic coverage: a comparison of methods to recover mesofauna from soil
Manipulating soil properties to modify the dynamics between nematodes and their natural enemies has been proposed to conserve services such as the biological control of insect pests by entomopathogenic nematodes. Many soil microarthropods including acari mites and collembola are natural enemies of nematodes; however, little is known about the naturally occurring assemblages of these two soil dwelling groups and how they might be influenced by soil conditions. A method to efficiently recover both nematodes and microarthropods from environmental samples would be helpful to characterize communities of these two groups in different habitats. Because samples of nematodes extracted from soil by sucrose centrifugation (SC) also contain soil mites, collembola, protozoans, and fungal and bacterial propagules, the efficiency of SC to recover microarthropods was compared to more conventional methods of microarthropod recovery such as heptane flotation (HF), Berlese funnels (BF), and a modified flotation Berlese method (FBF). Microarthropods were identified using an inverted microscope to class in one experiment and to order in a second. Significantly more microarthropods of all taxa were recovered by SC than with either Berlese method (BF or FBF). In total, 40% more microarthropods comprising seven orders were recovered by HF compared to SC, but the difference was not significant. Ecological indices (diversity, richness, and evenness) derived from HF and SC were congruent and significantly higher than those derived from BF. Excessive organic matter in the HF extractions, compared to those of SC, BF, and FBF, made mite detection and identification difficult and time consuming. Moreover, unlike SC, neither HF nor any Berlese method recovered nematodes. Accordingly, we found SC to be the most efficient method for microarthropod extraction, making it an ideal method for studies of communities of nematodes and many of their natural enemies in the soil.
Analysis of the animal community in a beech forest floor.
In this paper a description on quantitative basis is presented of the fauna inhabiting the organic soil layers (floor) of a beech forest without any undergrowth on a poor sandy soil. The most important quantitative investigations on forest soil fauna are briefly reviewed. The methods applied in soil fauna investigations are discussed. The fauna is discerned in several size groups of which the mesofauna (0.2-2 mm) and the macro fauna (2-20 mm) are studied with respect to their vertical dispersal, horizontal dispersal and seasonal fluctuations. In the case of the mesofauna the samples for investigation had a volume of 40 cm3 and were taken from the floor layers, separately distinguishable: the upper loose litter layer of the last autumn (F0 ), the litter layer of the preceding autumn ( F 1, the older litter layers (Fx) and the humus layer (H). For microarthropods (Acari, Collembola) these samples were desiccated slowly in a Tullgren apparatus, the effectiveness of which method was checked. Only some sample series were examined for Nematoda, Rotatoria and Tardigrada by immersing the samples in water. The macrofauna was studied in samples of 4 dm3 (hemiedaphic macro fauna). These samples were taken from the upper loose litter layer (F0) , the older litter layer (F), the humus layer (H) and the upper mineral soil layer (A1). To these samples also Tullgren's desiccation technique was applied and its effectiveness for several groups was checked. For part of the macrofauna, occurring in too small density for this method and moving actively on the soil surface e.g. Caribidae, Lycosidae, (epedaphic macrofauna) a trap technique was used. By applying the Lincoln-index method the density of the most numerous species could be estimated. Data on vertical dispersal are based on catchings throughout the year. In the case of microarthropods the influence of frost and drought on vertical dispersal could be stated. The horizontal dispersal of most microarthropods appeared homogeneous if expressed as frequency percentages; the densities, however, varied often considerably from spot to spot. Horizontal dispersal in separate epedaphic species was quite different: some species occurred in local concentrations, other were rather homogeneously distributed. Seasonal fluctuations of microarthropod species varied highly and were caused mainly by the juvenile stages. In one species, Nothrus silvestris, a more detailed — though still incomplete — analysis of the fluctuations was made. In hemiedaphic macrofauna species phenological and developmental data were recorded. Catching fluctuations of epedaphic macrofauna inform about time of activity (seasonal and diurnal), aestivation, hibernation, hatching of adults and influence of weather conditions on activity. In all sections the general part is followed by a special part recollecting data from this and other investigations on the different species. The whole community is represented in two diagrams the first with respect to the absolute density, the second with respect to the biomass, the population volume. The main differences of these representations are discussed. The importance of the forest floor fauna for the decomposition of the litter is reviewed. The main literature on this subject is discussed and own methods and results mainly with respect to millipedes are presented. It is concluded that the significance of the macrofauna in the forest soil is chiefly to be seen in the mechanical breakdown of the litter. The difficulties in determining the actual contribution in the breakdown of a given species in certain density are stressed.
An improved Berlese-Tullgren funnel and a flotation separator for extracting grassland arthropods
A Berlese-Tullgren funnel is described which features a 600-w heating element, a tray having a single bottom of new design, and ventilating screens below the tray to prevent condensation of moisture on the inner wall of the funnel. The funnel efficiently extracts grassland arthropods from coarse plant matter. Also described is a salt-water flotation separator, which extracts any arthropods from the fine litter and soil that may pass throught the funnel screens.
Soil is defined, and its components, structure, types, pedogenic regimes and classifications are briefly described. Rhizosphere and MSS (mesocavernous shallow stratum) are summarized and their importance emphasized. A diagnosis of the soil fauna is given and its representative groups recorded, these being divided for practical reasons into microfauna and macrofauna. Conservation issues are briefly addressed. Sampling methods are reviewed in a comprehensive treatment, and divided into field procedures and laboratory techniques. The field methods described are: direct sampling, sifting, pitfall traps, MSS traps, slope boring and hand collecting. Laboratory methods treated are: filtering, flotation, decantation, elutriation, flotation-centrifugation, and use of Berlese-Tullgren funnels, Moczarski eclectors and Baermann funnels. Recommendations on the construction of different traps, conservation, transport and preservative preparation are also given.
EDAPHOLOG monitoring system: automatic, real‐time detection of soil microarthropods
1. Soil microarthropods as organic matter decomposers play an important role in soil functioning thus providing ecosystem services. However, ecosystem scale investigations on their abundance and dynamics are scarce because their high spatio-temporal heterogeneity requires huge sample size. Processing and identifying large number of individuals are extremely labour-intensive. 2. We prototyped a device called EDAPHOLOG monitoring system that consists of (1) a probe that catches and detects microarthropods and estimates their body size; (2) a data logger transmitting data to a central data base; and (3) a Java application for retrieving data. We tested the device in three ways. First, we tested the precision and accuracy of detection and body size estimation of the device in the laboratory using microarthropods of five morphotypes: euedaphic Collembola, haired Collembola, scaled Collembola, Acari and Oribatida. Secondly, we compared the number of individuals collected by EDAPHOLOG traps, pitfall traps and soil extraction method in an alfalfa field. Thirdly, we deployed a total of 100 EDAPHOLOG probes in nine different habitats for over 3 months to demonstrate the applicability of the monitoring system. 3. In the laboratory, EDAPHOLOG detected 95,6% of individuals; even the smallest morphotype (Oribatida, body size (mean +/- SE): 0,58 +/- 0,04 mm) was detected in 87,5% of cases. For body length estimation, we established a quadratic relationship between the estimated and measured body lengths; however, the R2 of the quadratic model was only 0,32. By comparing the three different sampling methods (EDAPHOLOG, pitfall traps and soil extraction), we concluded that EDAPHOLOG traps better select for soil microarthropods compared to classical pitfall traps, since the latter ones caught also many other arthropod species. Furthermore, the EDAPHOLOG traps caught more epigeic microarthropods and almost the same number of soil-dwelling euedaphic microarthropods as the numbers collected by soil extraction. During the 3-month-long field test, the total numbers of detected and captured individuals agreed very well, although the device tended to overestimate the number probably due to counting also some soil particles falling into the probe. This trend was the same regardless of the total number caught. Surface-dwelling epigeic and litter-dwelling hemiedaphic microarthropods dominated the samples although soil-dwelling euedaphic microarthropods were also caught. 4. EDAPHOLOG is a novel device that consumes little power, rugged enough to operate in the field for extended periods of time, and can be remotely controlled. It detects surface- and soil-dwelling microarthropods real-time, and with high accuracy; however, it is less accurate to estimate body size. The system is especially suitable in field research focusing on temporal activity of microarthropods. Because it is non-invasive, studies requiring long-term monitoring, such as soil remediation or ecosystem restoration projects, will also find EDAPHOLOG useful.
Polska konstrukcja aparatu Macfadyena do wyplaszania drobnych stawonogów glebowych - A Polish construction of the Macfayden apparatus for extraction of smalI soil arthropods
A description is given in this paper of an apparatus for extraction of small arthropods from soil samples. The apparatus is a structure based on "the small canister apparatus for compact 25cm2 cores" designed by Macfadyen (1961), adapted to Polish production capacity and also slightly improved in respect of: construction of the casing and partition-wall of metaplex, the use of legs making it possible to set the apparatus at a desired level, the introduction of thermoregulation and temperature control in both chambers and samples (thermistor), glass canisters for collecting the animals, variation in size of the sample containers and their thermal insulation. The following parts of the apparatus are of original design: heating device together with temperature control, flow of water through the cooling tray and its movement, suspension of a ventilating chimney, dimensions of the apparatus and its parts, device for holding sample containers in a fixed position in the sampler cyclinder. In addition to the description of the apparatus a discussion is given of the processes taking place in both its chambers during operations, purposes for which the apparatus is inteded and its effectivness. Attention is also drawn to the fact that there is still room for improvement in its construction. The apparatus has already been used in several scientific centres in Poland (Katowice, Poznań, Szczecin, Toruń).
A new method for sampling arthropods using a suction collecting machine and modified Berlese funnel separator
A high-speed motor fan was adapted to suck arhtropods, along with some trash, from square-foot areas of an alfalfa field. The orgnisms were sucked into a collecting bag without damage, and these samples of leaves, duff, and living organisms were immediately refrigerated to retard predation and general exhaustive activity. At the end of the day the material from the sample bags was placed in modified Berlese funnels, which separated the organisms from the duff by entrapping the former in alcohol. Three methods of using the suction collecting machine are discussed, along with their respective advantages and disadvantages. All data obtained will be presented in a separate paper at a later date. A more nearly complete and quantitatively accurate sample of arthropods, from the ground surface to the top of the alfalfa stand, can be taken quickly in a single operation. These arthropods can also be separated by modified Berlese funnels into easily countabel units in which the speicmens are preserved. Modifications could make such machines useful in stuying arthropods in other field and vegetable crops and possibly in tree-crops.
A simple method for separating micro-, meio- and macrofauna, and plant litter fractions
A new apparatus threedimensionally sieving with the help of a strong jet of water is described for separating plant litter and fauna components in different fractions. The apparatus may also be useful for selecting and collecting soil fauna.
A method for obtaining samples of the population of Collembola (Symphypleona) in pastures
In our investigations on Smynthurus viridis, L., a study has been made of the population of this species, in an area of lucerne, at intervals of three and four days throughout the season. The density of the population of the species in a favourable pasture is markedly affected by the relative abundance of certain food-plants, especially leguminous species and particularly clovers such as subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) and lucerne (Medicago sativa). The activity of the insect is intimately associated with the moisture of its environment, and the moisture content of the surface soil is one of the most important factors affecting the environmental conditions. Considering the habits of the insect, it was felt that the sweeping method would not give a reliable record of the total population in a given area of pasture. A sample obtained by sweeping with a net does not include individuals on or near to the surface of the soil. The relative proportion of individuals situated on or near the soil surface and those situated further up the plants varies considerably from time to time, according to the meteorological conditions, the growth of the herbage and the moisture content of the surface soil. It was necessary therefore to devise a simple method by means of which a more accurate record of the total population in a given area could be obtained.
Boletin del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural
Sobre algunas condiciones de la extracción de fauna edáfica mediante embudos de Berlese-Tullgren
The distribution in time of the fauna dropping from the Berlese-Tullgren funnels was analized, both quantitatively and qualitatively. The funnels were metallic ones, illuminated with normal 25 W lamp bulbs. From an initial set of 12 soil samples, 250 ml each, for each sample the fauna was recovered hourly for the first 12 hours, and then every 12th hours, until no more animals were beeing recovered. The extraction period lasted 300 hours, but the last recovered animals fell at the 252nd hours. Two phases are described as forming the entire falling period. 1. Fast-dropping-in-high-quantities phase, lasting from the beginning of the extraction until the 48 hours. During this period, the 98% of the total fauna was recovered. 2. A second phase of little numerical importance (only 2% of the total fauna), but that can be very long (in our case 252 hours), was found. This phase is important when the purpose is the assessment of density figures as close as possible to the absolute figures. The different types of falling distributions (or dropping curves) are analized, both for the total fauna and the isolated zoological groups (see Figures 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 and Tables 1, 2 and 6). Also the respective angular coefficients of the curves are given, in order to characterize them. In addition, a statistical analysis was done (Student’s "t” test) in order to demonstrate the possible influence of the xerophilous or hygrophilous environments, from which the sam­ples were taken, over the falling distributions in Berlese funnels. The work was done sepa­rating and testing against each other 6 samples from a savanne (xerophilous) and 6 samples from a temperate rain forest (higrophilous). Significant differences were found for: 1) the first 7 or 12 hours in the falling of the total fauna, and 2) the entire falling distribution of the Homoptera insects. All the other groups or possible differences tested showed themselves as no-significant (see Tables 3 and 4). Three typical ways of falling are described for the fauna, and the detail is given for all the zoological groups included in each, among those found in this research (for the basic data, see Table 6). Hypothesis are given about the critical factors conditioning the falling type. Recommendations are offered for the correct choosing of an extraction time according to the type of data wanted (absolute or relative densities, etc.).
Time‐lapse camera trapping as an alternative to pitfall trapping for estimating activity of leaf litter arthropods
Pitfall trapping is the standard technique to estimate activity and relative abundance of leaf litter arthropods. Pitfall trapping is not ideal for long-term sampling because it is lethal, labor-intensive, and may have taxonomic sampling biases. We test an alternative sampling method that can be left in place for several months at a time: vertically placed time-lapse camera traps that have a short focal distance, enabling identification of small arthropods. We tested the effectiveness of these time-lapse cameras, and quantified escape and avoidance behavior of arthropod orders encountering pitfall traps by placing cameras programed with a range of sampling intervals above pitfalls, to assess numerical, taxonomic, and body size differences in samples collected by the two methods. Cameras programed with 1-or 15-min intervals recorded around twice as many arthropod taxa per day and a third more individuals per day than pitfall traps. Hymenoptera (ants), Embioptera (webspinners), and Blattodea (cockroaches) frequently escaped from pitfalls so were particularly under-sampled by them. The time-lapse camera method effectively samples litter arthropods to collect long-term data. It is standardized, non-lethal, and does not alter the substrate or require frequent visits.
A collecting technique for pink bollworms and other insects using a Berlese funnel with an improved heater
Diapause pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella (Saund. )), larvae were activated prior to the Berlese funnel treatment by exposing moist, infested material to 80°to 100°F. for 70 to 140 hours. This activation did not necessarily break the diapause. Through the use of heat, larvae of nondiapause pink bollworm, boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis Boh.), greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella (L. )), a phorid fly (Megaselia sp. ), and saprophagous flies were forced out of infested material with little difficulty. A heater using a Nichrome wire grid which gave uniform heat was devised for large Berlese funnels, thus allowing large amounts of insect-infested material to be processed with high larval yield.
US Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine
A Berlese funnel for collecting smaller soil animals
Essai comparatif sur les microarthropodes et la taille des échantillons de sol
1) The distributions of Oribatid mites extracted from soil samples of different sizes are quite homogeneous; the total number of individuals and the number of species increase with the surface and are higher in the thinner samples (2,5cm). 2) The small samples (surface: 20cm2; Ø 5cm) seem to be the most practical: its thickness does not influence the extraction efficiency. However, for ecological studies, the 10x10x2,5cm (250mcm3) samples seem to be the most efficient: the number of extracted individuals is high enough; the number of species is optimum, and the density of individuals is maximum. 3) The distribution of Isotomidae (Collembola) are less homogeneous, and it is not always possible to bring out the same conclusions. 4) The differences in density by volume-unit for the same surface show that the animals are distributed mainly in the first few centimeters, which agrees with the precedent observations by the authors. Consequently, thinner samples are the most suitable for ecological and faunistic studies.
Design of a time‐sorting pitfall trap for surface‐active arthropods
No indication of methodological biases in tullgren and macfadyen extraction of edaphic microarthropods
Separating soil-dwelling microarthropods from their substrate is a fundamental procedure in soil zoological research. Although the earliest methods to automatically extract animals from soil were described more than a century ago, the efficiency of existing techniques is still open to debate. In this study, we mutually compared the performance of four methods of very different operation mode (active and passive extraction, and traps) to inspect for biases of either method. From a temperate grassland and a forest site, we collected the adult oribatid and collembolan fauna using a Tullgren extractor, a Macfadyen canister extractor, heptane flotation and pitfall traps. Between Tullgren and Macfadyen, we did not find substantial differences in group and species abundances, rarified species richness, body length distributions, and collembolan life form. Heptane flotation produced fewer individuals than the two active methods, but comparable patterns of species composition, body lengths and collembolan life form. Pitfall traps strongly underestimated abundance and species richness of Oribatida and of eu- and hemiedaphic Collembola, but caught high numbers of epedaphic individuals, and several epedaphic species that were missed by the other methods. In conclusion, our data indicated that the relative efficiency of the Tullgren and Macfadyen methods was high and estimates of abundance and species richness reliable. We suggest to complement the traditional soil coring with pitfall trapping to adequately represent the epedaphic collembolan species in the data.
Funnel for extraction of leaf litter organisms
A Berlese funnel for the rapid extraction of grassland surface macro-arthropods
A Berlese funnel is described which features three 1500 W heating elements, and is capable of processing turf samples up to 3m2 in size. The funnel efficiently and rapidly extracts flightless macro-arthropods from both turf samples and vegetation, and the large sample size allows quantitative measurement of quite sparse population.
Un nouvel appareil de tri pour la faune endogée
After a brief introduction which exposes the problem of sorting of faunistical samples in Pedozoology, a concise critical description of the apparatus proposed at the present time by different authors allows to determination of the necessary conditions for the construction of a sorting device. An original apparatus is then described. It consists of two parts, an aspirator-collector and a pump which works according to the principle of communicating vases. In conclusion, a few pacatical consequences are presented.
Apparatus for extraction of arthropods from soil using differential water flows
An apparatus and extraction process for separating arthropods of uniform size and mass are described. The apparatus was initially developed to extract eggs of the black field cricket, Teleogryllus commodus Walker (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), from soil cores. The main components of the process include a breakdown wash, wet sieving, soil extraction, differential water flows(elutriation), flotation,and visualinspection. The elutriation procedure removed much of the fine organic debris which in earlier extraction systemshad contaminated the egg fractions, making visual inspection difficult. The extraction process described was 2-3 times faster than earlier extraction systems. There was >85% retrieval efficiency of marked eggs. Two operators could process about 4.8 liters of soil per hour.
A method of turf sampling and extraction of leatherjackets
An apparatus for the extraction of leatherjackets (larvae of Tipula paludosa Meig.) from turf samples is described. Cores are retained in metal cutting cylinders and are stood turf surface downwards in dishes of cold water while heat is applied to the other end. The temperature gradient drives the leatherjackets down into the water. The system is very convenient to operate and is of acceptable efficiency.
Some characteristics of the Macfadyen high gradient extractor for soil micro-arthropods
Records are given of the temperatures and temperature gradients developed in peat and mineral soil samples in a model of the Macfadyen high gradient extractor for soil microarthropods. Temperature gradients were steeper in peat samples than in samples of mineral soil throughout the entire extraction process. Changes in humidity in mineral soil samples, and emergence of the fauna during extraction are shown. Different emergence patterns are shown for Acarina and Collembola, and for groups and species of mites. An efficiency of 76% is estimated for the recovery of Acarina from mineral soil samples by this extractor.
Une sonde et un extracteur destinés à la récolte d'Acariens (Acari) dans les sphaignes (Sphagnum spp.)
Two devices for the study of Oribatid mites in Sphagnum mosses are described: a cylindrical sampler mounted on a hand drill, providing uncompressed and undeformed samples, and a multiple extractor derived from the MACFADYEN principle, treating 150 samples simultaneously. The use and the efficiency of those devices are discussed. The accent is put on the optimization of every element to obtain statistically comparable results.
Optimization of extraction conditions in the air-conditioned Macfadyen funnel extractor for soil arthropods
With a modified, newly constructed Macfadyen extractor highest numbers of Collembola and Acari are obtained when (a) samples are crumbled, and (b) sample temperaturc top is about 35 °C. These conditions apply to any type of soil, but the thickness of the sample in the extraction cylinder has to be adapted for the soil type. For a light mineral spil, like sandy loam a thickness of 4 cm seems to be ideal for the extraction of both Collembola and Acari, whereas for bog soil the thickness should be reduced to 2 cm. At 35 °C maximum extraction was obtained within 40 to 60 h. A new method for determining the efficiency of dynamic extractors for soil microarthropods is proposed.
New Trends in Soil Biology. Proceedings of the VIII. International Colloquium of Soil Zoology
Sampling and extracting methods of soil microarthropods for quatitative ecological studies
Eine neu konzipierte Auswaschanlage zur Gewinnung von Bodenarthropoden
A new flotation method to extract arthropods from soil samples - The prototype of an extractor of soil arthropods through flotation has been constructed. The extractor consists of a container where the soil sample is broken down (fig. 1 and 2), a funnel for the collection of the soil arthropods, and a vibrator. The sample, which has been preserved at -20°C, is thawed and placed in the upper part of the container in a detergent solution (sodiumhexametaphosphate). The sample is broken down by means of vibrations and blowing compressed air into the container. The soil arthropods float, and with continued addition of detergent they overflow into a collar leading to a funnel provided with filter paper. About 36 soil samples can be processed in one working day. The efficiency of the new method has been compared with the flotation method of Newman (1971) and the Macfadyen method used by Bieri et al. (1978). The results obtained show that the new flotation method is more efficient and less timeconsuming than the Newman method, and is complementary to the Macfadyen.
Professor Berlese´s apparatus for collecting small arthropods rapidly and in great quantities
Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft für Ökologie
Verbesserung der Extraktion von Dipterenlarven aus Ackerböden [in German]
The conception of a modified soil washing and flotation method to extract Diptera larvae from agricultural soils is described. It consists of a wide and a fine sieve (mesh size 2500 micrometers respectively 150 micrometers) and a collection vessel. Each sieve is connected with a copper tube to disturb the soil sample and to distribute the larvae. In comparision with the sieve-flotation method after HEALEY and RUSSELL-SMITH (1970) and the Berlese-Tullgren apparatus, the presented method shows an increase of efficiency of 5 - 38 % compared with the former methods.
An improved method for separating arthropods from soil samples
The method described is an improvement on the Salt and Hollick method. It uses an organic solvent mixture to float off the animals and separate them from other matter by an overflowing apparatus or separating funnel
Methods of Study in Quantitative Soil Ecology: population, production and energy flow
Sampling Pear Foliage for Nymphs of the Pear Psylla, using the Berlese-Tullgren Funnel
Mites, their identification and management
ICAR Centre of Advanced Studies, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar
Sampling, extraction and identification of oribatid mites
An Attempt has been made to project the methods of collection of Oribatid mites from the soil ecosystem, the various means of their extraction, microscopic preparation and finally to identification with the help of key. Collection and identification of mites inhabiting soil primarily depends on sound extraction techniques, which can be practiced. Qualitative techniques assist in the process of identification while quantitative techniques enable for the interpretation of data.
Studies on the oribatids and collemboles of Greenland
In the present work I have tried, based upon Berlese tests, to give an idea of the oribatid and collembole fauna of Greenland, collectively called the microfauna. As the microfauna is very much dependent on the climate, which varies much from one investigated area to another (fig. 2), I have briefly described the climate in these areas (see tables 1—3). On Ella Island in the Franz Joseph Fjord region, where most of the samples were taken, the climate is continental with warm summers, cold winters, slight precipitation and few foggy days in a year. The rest of the areas have an oceanic climate with relatively cold summers, relatively ample precipitation and many foggy days. The microclimate, i. e. the climate in and just above the surface of the earth, where the microfauna lives, is greatly influenced by the water content and the insolation. The material was collected in many different biotopes, from lake bank, bog, mixed Chamaephyte vegetation, lichen heath and fell-field, to beach mounds, lagoons, etc. In all, 60 species of oribatids and 41 species of collemboles have so far been identified in Greenland (in the course of this investigation 55 oribatids and 35 collemboles). Three oribatids are new species, described by M. S e l l n i c k , whose descriptions have been inserted here. The species are: Brachychthonius grandis, n. sp., Lugoribates gracilis n. gen. n. sp. and Hammeria groenlandica n. gen. n. sp. Whereas the collembole faunas are apparently alike in East and West Greenland, this is not the case with the oribatid fauna, as in Southwest Greenland there are a good many species which do not occur on the East coast. This is probably connected with the milder climate in Southwest Greenland. Outside Greenland the Greenland collemboles are widely distributed, 29 species being found in North America and 37 in Europe. There is no doubt that the wide range of the collemboles in the northern hemisphere is connected with their high age. Of the Greenland oribatids, however, only 10 have been found in North America, whereas 47 occur in Europe. This suggests that the oribatids are of European origin. The oribatid and collembole fauna in Greenland is closely related to the fauna on the other north Atlantic Arctic islands; thus the greater part of the microfauna of Jan Mayen, Bear Island and Spitzbergen is known in Greenland. But with Iceland Greenland has relatively few species in common. Thus Iceland differs essentially from the north Atlantic Arctic islands, not only by a different composition of species, but also by a richer microfauna. For the biotopes investigated a calculation has been made for each species as to its individual density: its dominance number, i. e. the percentage of the species of the total fauna and also the distribution of the species in the various samples in the biotope: the Constance number, i. e. the percentage of the samples in which the species in question was found; the average number of the species per sample is also calculated, as well as the highest number in one sample, etc. (tables 18—67). From these numbers a survey may be had of which species are characteristic of each biotope. It appears that wet biotopes (lake bank, bog and moss), which do not desiccate during the summer, have a fauna that differs: from that in the dry biotopes (fell-field, lichen heath, mixed Chamaephyte vegetation, etc., also snow bed, which dry up late in summer), (tables 13—14). The fauna in wet biotopes constitutes the Platynothrus peltifer community with the characteristic animal Platynothrus peltifer, the frequent Melanozetes ?mollicomus and a number of species occurring now and then: Trimalaconothrus novus, Heminothrus thori, Oppia neerlandica, Scheloribates pallidulus, Edwardzetes edwardsii and the collemboles Xenylla humicola, Friesea quinguespinosa, Isotoma bipunctata, I. viridis, Sminthurides malmgreni and Sminthurinus concolor. In the dry biotopes we find the Oribatula exilis community with the characteristic animal Oribatula exilis, the frequently occurring Calyptozetes sarekensis and Camisia horrida, together with a number of species occurring now and then: Oppia quadricarinata, 0. translamellata, O. ornata, Eremaeus oblongus, Chamobates cuspidatus, Iugoribates gracilis, Ceratozetes thienemanni, Hammeria groenlandica, Trichoribates sp. and the collemboles Willemia anophthalma, Tetracanthella wahlgreni, Folsomia diplophthalma, Isotoma minor and I. coeruleo-griseus. Some species are almost just as common in wet as in dry biotopes, for instance Tectocepheus velatus and Tricoribates trimaeulatus; the density of individuals of these species is also about the same in wet and in dry biotopes. The Platynothrus peltifer and Oribatula exilis communities are not sharply delimited but overlap, as very few species within the oribatids as well as the collemboles are confined strictly to definite biotopes. Not all the representatives of the Platynothrus peltifer and the Oribatula exilis communities are found at the same time. The members of the communities vary from area to area, depending on their geographical distribution. Of the characteristic animals and of the most frequently occurring species PL peltifer, Orib. exilis, Camisia horrida and Calyptozetes sarekensis are distributed everywhere, whereas Melanozetes ?mollicomus in East Greenland has not been found north of Mikis Fjord. All these species are found in the investigated parts of West Greenland. Besides the Platynothrus peltifer and the Oribatula exiliè communities a special community, the beach community, is found on the beach where the tidal waters frequently surge over the biotope; it is characterized by the oribatid Ameronothrus lineatus and the collembole Archisotoma besselsi, both strictly associated with the shore; they never, or hardly ever, occur outside the beach community. In addition, a number of species occur here which may also be found in other communities, but perhaps most frequently by the sea, for instance Hypogastrura viatica and Folsomia sexoculata. Onychiurus armatus var. arctica is also found on the beach; it is distinctly a beach form and differs from: the main form by its very considerable size. Among the factors that determine the presence of the species in the biotopes, humidity seems to rank first. Besides a high relative atmospheric humidity, the collembole fauna at least demands also a certain amount of free water in the ground in order to soften the nutritive matter. As these animals are very thin-skinned they need a fairly large amount of water if they are not to shrink and die. Besides the humidity, nutrition also plays a great rôle in the choice of biotope. As most oribatids and collemboles live on decaying plant remains and fungus hyphae which are found almost everywhere, it is difficult to see why certain biotopes are preferred. Apparently these animals are not specialized to particular plant species. As regards certain sminthurids, however, they are constantly found on certain plants, whose pollen grains they devour. The temperature and degree of acidity of the soil do not seem to influence the microfauna in the choice of biotopes. Nevertheless, temperature plays an exceedingly great rôle in the life cycle of these animals; for instance the time of the breeding season in summer is dependent on the high temperatures. In certain biotopes it is seen that the oribatids dominate the collemboles; in others the collemboles are more numerous. The reason for this alternation between oribatids and collemboles is difficult to explain. Apparently humidity plays a certain rôle, as a predominance of collemboles is often found in wet biotopes, whereas the oribatids are numerically predominant in the dry biotopes. Humidity alone, however, cannot be the reason for the alternation between the density of individuals of oribatids and collemboles, because one of the very driest of biotopes, lichen heath at Angmagssalik, was much richer in collemboles than in oribatids. Both animal groups were very richly represented as regards number of species' and number of individuals; this may have something to do with specially favourable nutrition possibilities in this biotope. The reason why now one, now another group of animals is more numerous cannot be decided before we know the requirements of each species as to humidity, nutrition, etc. In biotopes with various humidity conditions within the same geographical area the animals breed at various times. These times also vary from area to area. In dry biotopes on Ella Island in the Franz Joseph Fjord region the oribatid Oribatula exilis breeds earlier than in wet ones, the same is the case with the collembole Onychiurus sibiricus and probably with all the others whose circumstances have not been investigated. The explanation of this lies in the différent water contents of the biotopes and the consequent differences of temperature. The dry biotopes, which are often snow-free in winter or quickly become snowfree and are not immersed by the meltwater, become dry early in summer and are quickly warmed by means of insolation. This has the effect that conditions here very quickly become favourable to the development of animal life. On the other hand, the humidity will quickly become insufficient for the young individuals, which have little resistance to excessive desiccation; all this means that the animals in the dry biotopes breed early in order to maintain their population. In the wet biotopes, which are flooded all the winter and in spring receive the meltwater, animal life cannot develop until later in summer when the meltwater has disappeared. On account of the high water content of these biotopes the temperature rises but slowly, so that the breeding season here does not occur until somewhat later on. Similar conditions were found in the other areas investigated. For instance, at Angmagssalik the breeding season of the oribatids on lake bank runs from the end of July till into September, in bog a bit earlier, from the middle of July to the beginning of August, and still earlier on lichen heath, in July. Whereas on lake bank and in bog, where the humidity is sufficient all the time, the curves for the various species are nearly alike, this is not the case on lichen heath. The species that are characteristic of and frequently occur in the Oribatula exilis community, Oribatula exilis, Calyptozetes sarekensis and Camisia horrida, breed later than the species which most often occur in dry biotopes but are not characteristic of this community. This might signify that in lichen heath which dries up rapidly in summer, the last mentioned species are obliged to breed at a time when the humidity is still sufficient to save the brood from perishing, whereas the species that are characteristic of very dry biotopes undoubtedly are capable of resisting a somewhat more advanced desiccation and therefore are able to breed at a somewhat later time. If we examine the breeding time of a certain species in different biotopes, for instance Tectocepheus velatus, which occurs everywhere, we find that taken by and large, its curves follow the characteristic course of the curves for the biotopes which means that each species breeds at different times in the different biotopes. Th. S o r e n s e n has shown that the same applies to the flowering seasons of plants. The collemboles behave in almost the same manner as the oribatids. The time when the breeding season in each biotope occurs is determined by the climate of the place and occurs simultaneously with the flowering season of the plant association involved. On Ella Island, where the summer occurs early as a consequence of the strong insolation, the breeding season occurs earlier than at the coastal stations of Scoresby Sound, Angmagssalik and Upernavik where the summer begins later on account of fog. When we know how long the eggs and the animals take to develop, (collemboles) we are in a position to calculate theoretically the approximate time when the maximum of the breeding season occurs. This form of calculation shows that the time of the maximum is the same as that found by means of the course of the curves. The maximum at mid-summer is probably due to one first generation emanating from the hibernated individuals (young and old), but may also comprise a second generation, which in that case descends from individuals which have overwintered in the egg stage. In other countries (England and Germany) it has been revealed that humidity is the factor which first and foremost favours reproduction, whereas a high temperature will not play any great role in this respect, as it almost always coincides with dry periods, which are destructive to the microfauna. In Greenland, where the period in which reproduction is possible is very brief, but favourable both as regards moisture and temperature, the reproduction period becomes short and intense. This may be the explanation of the very large numbers of individuals found in Greenland during the best summer time. It is probable that the microfauna survived the glacial period in Greenland together with hardy rock plants in ice-free regions (nunataks). A post-glacial immigration across the ice, by means of drift-wood, birds, the wind and ships, cannot have augmented the fauna to any great extent. An immigration of higher, specialized species along a land bridge from Iceland via the Blosseville coast during the last inter-glacial period is very impracticable, judging from the occurrence of certain higher specialized Oribatidae species exclusively in South and Southwest Greenland. This occurrence may have some connection with the milder climate of these regions. The higher specialized forms probably survived the glacial period like the rest of the microfauna. As regards the origin of the microfauna the collemboles can tell us nothing, as they are widely distributed in the northern hemisphere; the distribution of the oribatids, on the other hand, argues a European origin. It is revealed by an investigation of the origin of some animal groups in Greenland, that the earth-bound, non-mobile forms such as mites, collemboles, spiders, beetles, etc. (all the animals that may be imagined to have survived a glacial period) apparently belong to the very soil of the land and with it were disrupted from connection with Europe. The non-earth-bound, mobile forms, on the other hand, are mostly of American origin, immigrated during the post-glacial period. A comparison with Iceland’s fauna reveals much in favour of the assumption that large parts of Greenland’s fauna are of preglacial origin.
A microscopical technique for studying the undisturbed texture of soils
A technique is described which makes it possible to sample, to embed in agar, and to cut serial sections of undisturbed, wet soil. The technique allows staining of the microflora, and it is suited for studying the soil texture with special regard to plant and animal life. It was shown that Phthiracarus sp. is tunnelling in decayed wood and that Scutovertex bidactylus Coggi can occur in aggregations which, as regards space, are so restricted that the fact should be taken into account in a quantitative study of the population density.
A microscopical technique for studying the undisturbed structure of soils
Eine mikroskopische Technik zum Studium ungestörter Bodenstrukturen - Mit dem Ziel, eine Technik zu entwickeln, die es erlaubt, Serienschnitte von natürlichen, feuchten und ungestörten Bodenproben herzustellen, wurde folgendes angewandt: Die Proben wurden von einem gefrorenen Block abgeschnitten, in 2%iger Agar-Agar-Lösung gesättigt, gekühlt, in Alkohol gehärtet und schließlich geschnitten und in Glycerin-Gelatine eingebettet.
Zeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung, Düngung und Bodenkunde
A quantitative comparison of hand-sorting and extraction with a Tullgren funnel
The numbers of Acarina and Collembola obtained by these techniques are compared. Small slow-moving species such as Brachychthonius and Tullbergia krausbaueri (Börner) suffer the greatest losses when extracted by a Tullgren funnel, and it is suggested that these losses are due to the poorly developed locomotory organs of these species.
Academic Press and Butterworth Scientific Publications
The construction of a modified Tullgren apparatus, which can be used for very moist and very dry habitats, is described. The emigration of the animals out of the sample has been correlated with measurements of temperature and relative humidity inside and outside the sample. Both factors seem to influence the emigration. Sources of error are: (1) condensation of water on the inside of funnel, (2) paralysis of the animals when temperatures rise too high and too fast, and (3) the lowermost layer in the sample may dry out too quickly under the influence of low relative humidity in the free atmosphere around the apparatus.
Proceedings of the University of Nottingham Second Easter School in Agricultural Science
A new modification of the Tullgren apparatus
1. The model of the Tullgren apparatus used is seen in Fig. 1. The apparatus was employed both for qualitative and quantitative collecting of Collembola and Acarina in samples of a surface area of 0.001 sq.m. and a depth of 6-7 cm. 2. The results from using the apparatus are shown in Figs. 2-6 and Tables 1-6. The temperature was measured with mercury thermometers; the relative air humidity with Nielsen-Thamdrup sulphuric acid hygrometers. 3. The expulsion of the animals from the samples took place in four phases (Figs. 4-6). 4. `Thin-skinned Acarina' are not less resistant to humidity than `thick-skinned' ones (Table 1). 5. Sources of error are: (1) formation of dew on the inner side of the funnel--when the earth sample by mistake reaches right to the border of the netting and the temperature is too high in relation to the water-content of the sample, (2) paralysation when temperatures rise too high and too fast. 6. The apparatus can be used both for very moist localities--by prolonging phase 1--and for very dry ones--by prolonging and intensifying phase 4. 7. About 90% relative air humidity seems both in the samples and in the field to be the optimal minimum threshold for the majority of the Collembola and Acarina living in the soil.
Annual Report of the Ontaria Entomological Society
Apparatus for collecting small arthropods terrestrial and aquatic
Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science
Abhandlungen und Berichte des Naturkundemuseums Görlitz
Sammel-und Präparationsmethoden für Bodenarthropoden [in German]
The following methods for sampling and preparation are described: 1. A new respirator (Exhaustor) for sampling animals directly into fixation fluid or a tube for cultivation. 2. Three simple methods for sampling (two flotation methods and 1 method by ocular sampling). 3. Fixation and preservation . 4. Five methods for clearing. 5. Two water containing fluids for permanent slide preparations {gummi arabicum and polyvinyl-lactophenol). 6. Four depigmentation methods for cuticula pigments as well as cell pigments. 7. Preparation of material dried out. 8. Demontation of ancient polyvinyl slide preparations. 9. Staining of cuticula structures by chlorazol black.
Efficiency of different dry funnel techniques in extracting Arthropoda from raw humus forest soil
The hot rod technique of Valpas for the extraction of microarthropods is compared with Macfadyen's high-gradient extractor and the standard Tullgren funnel without heating. The hand-sorting and funnel methods for collecting medium-sized Arthropods are compared and criticized, with special reference to spiders. Various heating arrangements have been tested in large Tullgren funnels.
Evaluation of the extraction efficiency for the Hypoaspis aculeifer reproduction test in the context of soil quality assessment
The standardized bioassay using the predatory mite Hypoaspis aculeifer (TG 226; as reported by OECD 2008) has already proven its usefulness for the assessment of chemicals. While included in the regulatory assessment scheme of pesticides as a non-target arthropod, it has still been rarely used for the assessment of soils or complex matrices of unknown quality. For such an objective, the extraction of both adults and juveniles from soil is a necessary and crucial step to get reliable data, but may be influenced by the characteristics of the tested soils or matrices. This technical note focuses on this specific protocol point. Extraction ratios of adults and of different reproductive outputs were evaluated in soils of different textures. Recommendations on the extraction of H. aculeifer in the standardization process within ISO/TC 190 are here provided.
A review of methods for recovering biting midge larvae (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) from substrate samples
Ten methods for sampling larvae of biting midges are reviewed: sieving; salt-flotation; sieving and salt-flotation combined; sugar-flotation; Berlese funnel-extraction; light-extraction; sand-extraction; agar-extraction; decanting; and carbon dioxide-flotation. In general, agar extraction and salt-flotation are the most effective methods for collecting larvae. Sodium chloride used in flotation results in faster extraction of the larvae but causes higher mortality of first and second instars; magnesium sulfate results in slower collection of larvae but fewer deaths of younger instars. Sieving, sieving plus salt-flotation, and Berlese funnels can be used successfully with certain substrates, such as rotting leaves, aquatic plants, mosses, and tree-hole material. Sugar-flotation provides results similar to salt-flotation with the advantage of less larval mortality. Sand-extraction, light-extraction. and decanting have produced less satisfactory results. Carbon dioxide-flotation is a promising technique which should be explored further.
A comparative analysis of soil fauna populations and their role in decomposition processes
This work, which was originally part of the IBP synthesis effort, aims at an up-to-date critical review and comparative analysis of structural and functional properties of soil animal populations. It is emphasized that quantification of the metabolism of soil animal populations and their function in soil processes has ultimately been deduced from estimates of density and biomass combined with laboratory data. The comparison of the relative contribution of soil fauna populations in different sites has therefore primarily been based on the extensive information available on the quantitative structure of animal communities. A general evaluation of the density and biomass data discusses the effect of various sampling and extraction factors on the annual mean estimates on which the analysis has been primarily based: sampling design, size and number of sample units, sample depth, sampling period and frequency, efficiency of extraction and method of biomass estimation. The information pertaining to individual sites and soil fauna groups has been condensed into a methodology code which is presented along with site code, site characterization and relevant references. We also present for each main soil fauna group an analysis based on frequency distributions and regressions of biomass against density. The distribution of density and biomass estimates as related to biome, soil moisture, pH, and presence of a top soil organic accumulation horizon has been examined. We treat the size and composition of whole animal communities in various biomes and draw a number of conclusions about large-scale geographical patterns. The conclusions in general confirm theories developed by earlier authors, but the much larger data set analyzed in the present work reveals a number of exceptions and nuances relative to the original simple theories. The difference between the faunal composition and biomass in mull and mor soils is confirmed. An inverse relationship between weight of organic material on the soil surface and the total soil fauna biomass is suggested. A general decrease of total soil fauna biomass is observed from the temperate deciduous forest biome and the secondary grasslands of the same climatic zone northwards to the arctic zone and southwards to the tropical forests and savannas, accompanied by change in composition of the main soil fauna groups. However, ecosystems with comparatively high soil fauna biomass are found in both arctic and tropical regions. We discuss substrate utilization by the soil fauna. Most species (panphytophages) seem to consume both dead plant material and the microbial flora, but some species specialize on one or the other. The information available on food selectivity and palatability is reviewed. Niche exploitation and mechanisms for amelioration of inter- and intra-specific competition for food resources is discussed. We give a critical review of methodology and data available on each of the energetic parameters: consumption, assimilation, respiration, and production. The variability of the estimates obtained for these parameters and the derived energetic efficiency ratios are discussed considering the influence of environmental and biological factors. The proportion of the energy input to the soil which is passed through each of these energetic pathways and its allocation to the major faunal groups has been compared for the relatively few sites which have been sufficiently well studied. We conclude with discussing the general influence of the soil fauna on decomposition and nutrient circulation. The soil fauna appears generally to be responsible for less than about 5% of total decomposer respiration. Thus, their direct contribution to ecosystem metabolism is insignificant. In contrast, the indirect catalytic role of the soil fauna is emphasized. Several different ways in which this may be accomplished are discussed and supported with recent evidence.
Aspetti recenti degli studi sulla microfauna del suolo [in Italian]
Soil microfauna (mesofauna, according to the modern definition) is an extremely important component of Edaphon. Many groups of microfauna, in spite of the minute biomass, play either a direct or an indirect role, but they are always remarkable in the process of humus production. The study of this sector which is so important in soil biology, presents many difficulties. The valuation of the actual role of microfauna in energetic flow appears complex given the minuteness of the organisms. However, we are beginning to have fairly exact methods for the pursuit of this study. It is difficult to obtain samples of microfauna as we are obliged to use different extraction techniques for the various groups; from this the difficulty of a realistic valuation of the biocenotic structures of soil communities arises. A study of sampling methods, diagnoscs etc, available today, demonstrates nevertheless how these problems which are so important not only in theory but also in practise, can be faced effectively. Moreover microfauna presents us with a useful means of studying soil pollution, given its sensitivity to the variations in soil factors. Microfauna is an essential component in biological production; this constitutes a fundamental aspect of our study and knowledge of soil evolution.
Comparison of the Tullgren funnel and soil section methods for surveying Oribatid populations
A comparison was made of a Tullgren funnel and a soil section method for estimating Oribatid population in a black pine woodland soil. The funnel method was found superior for extracting particularly small species while larger and wood-feeding species were more accurately estimated by the section method. For 8 out of 12 species investigated, the section method was more efficient in comparison to the funnel method. The relative efficiency of the two methods did not vary significantly according to season. Advantages, disadvantages, and scope of each method are discussed.
" Berlese vs. Winkler": Comparison of two forest litter coleoptera extraction methods and the ECOLI (Extraction of Coleoptera in Litter) protocol
We present results of a comparison between the Winkler (Moczarski) eclector and the Berlese-Tullgren funnel methods for extracting forest litter-dwelling Coleoptera from sifted substrates, with a focus on relevance for taxonomic studies. A review of the history and methodologies of leaf litter arthropod extraction is provided. Repeated, timed trials were performed to compare the relative effectiveness of the two methods using litter samples from various sites across the southern United States. Extraction rates for Winkler and Berlese funnels were evaluated based on temporal and taxonomic criteria by comparing accumulations of Coleoptera specimens and species at timed intervals. In addition, Curculionidae, Staphylinidae, and "rare" species were targeted and evaluated separately. No clear differences in extraction efficiency, either temporally or taxonomically, between Winklers and Berleses were detected. But contrary to current extraction practices, extraction patterns for both Winklers and Berleses suggested that intervals at the beginning of trials (3–24 hrs) and later in the trials (60–144 hrs) are most productive. The typical 24-48-hr run duration currently used in most studies fails to recover a substantial fraction of the total abundance contained in samples. An extraction protocol for litter-dwelling Coleoptera is suggested based on these results.
Proceedings and Transactions of the British Entomological and Natural History Society
Diversity of soil arthropods in sugarcane in the Brazilian Cerrado: Influence of tillage systems, extraction methods, and sampling time
No-till sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) systems is considered as an interesting option to reduce the cost of production and allow the conservation of both soil quality and biological activity. This study was conducted at a sugarcane mill in Goiatuba, in the state of Goi´as, Brazil, which grows sugarcane variety SP 813250. An experiment based on a factorial design (2 × 2 × 2) was set up to compare the diversity of soil arthropods in sugarcane grown under no-till and conventional tillage systems, the efficiency of two methods used to extract soil arthropods (Berlese-Tullgren funnel and flotation in saturated salt solution), and the effects of sampling time (morning or afternoon) at different times of the year (September 2015, November 2015, April 2016, and June 2016). A total of 2776 arthropods belonging to 11 taxa were collected. Acari, Hymenoptera, and Isoptera were the most abundant arthropods (89.3%). The tillage system and sampling time did not affect soil arthropod diversity. The Berlese-Tullgren funnel method was more efficient at extracting arthropods in the rainy season (September and November), whereas the saturated salt solution method was more efficient in the dry season (April and June). The highest soil arthropod abundance was recorded in the rainy season. Our results suggest that the soil disturbance caused by tilling has no effect on soil arthropod diversity in sugarcane plantations.
A comparative study between sampling methods for soil litter arthropods in conserved tree plots and banana crop plantations in Rwanda
The aim of this study was to compare trapping efficiency between Berlese-Tullgren funnels, pitfall traps and hand sorting sampling methods for soil litter arthropods. The study was carried out at the Arboretum of Ruhande and Rubona agricultural research station, in southern Rwanda. Biological indices indicated that pitfall traps collect a wide range of soil litter arthropod diversity, and chi-square test indicated the dependence between Berlese-Tullgren funnels and pitfall traps, and between pitfall traps and hand sorting. Z-test and univariate comparison indicated differences in means between tested sampling methods. The analysis of variance revealed that pitfall traps are less time consuming and the principal component analysis indicated that Formicidae is likely to be collected by pitfall traps and Berlese-Tullgren funnels, while Julidae, Porcellionidae and Geophilidae are likely to be collected by hand sorting. Research concluded that pitfall traps are more efficient than other studied sampling methods, but further studies should be conducted in other ecological zones, and different land uses in order to generate general information of these findings.
International Journal of Development and Sustainability
A collapsible, full-sized Berlese-funnel system
A portable Berlese-funnel system which is lightweight and collapsible, yet provides the extraction capabilities of standard full-sized metal funnels, is described. Pattern and construction information is given for pyramidal funnels made from rip-stop nylon, with a 14 " (35.6 cm) square loading space. A stand which holds three funnels is made from household shelving brackets, and polyethylene bags (Whirl-paks®) are used to hold the preservative.
A variation of the Merchant-Crossley soil microarthropod extractor
Polskie Towarzystwo Gleboznawcze Prace Komiji Naukowych
Porównanie Ekstrakji Roztoczy /Acari/ I Skoczognków /Collembola/ Glebowych W Aparacie Tullgrena I Przy Uzyciu Paradwuchlorobenzenu [in Polish]
Results of the extraction of mites and springtails from soil samples by means of the thermic extraction in the Tullgren´s apparatus and of the chemical method by paradichlorobezene are compared. For mites the Tullgren´s apparatus and for springtails - paradichlorobenezene were more effective. Paradichlorobenzene was applied over the cloth protecting the sample surface. The above chemical preparation applied in such a way was of higher effeciency: as compared with the direct use on the soil sample surface: 4 fold for all mites, 12 fold for Ptyctima, 9 fold for Oppidae and Suctobelbidae and 2 fold for Oribatei larvae. Paradichlorobenzene can be used as a repellent for quick gaining of mites and springtails, first of all, under field conditions, where the application of extraction apparatus is impossible; however, a cautious treatment of soil samples with this preparation should be kept in mind.
Porównanie różnych metod wypłaszania roztoczy (Acari) glebowych [in Polish]
The authors compared productivity of three devices for flushing of soil fauna, viz.: modified Macfadyen's extractor, MPCS (description of construction and operation principles - Niedbala and Rohloff, 1970), modified Tullgren's apparatus (Haarløw, 1947), Murphy's apparatus (Górny, 1966). The most productive apparatus for all the groups of mites (Acari) and for majority of oribateids (Oribatei) appeared to be the MCPS. Moreover, on two separated forest areas of the Kampinos National Park, somewhat different from phytosociologic viewpoint, but approximate pedologically, distinct qualitative and quantitative differences in the fauna of mites (Acari), and particularly of oribatids (Oribatei) have been found by the authors. Basing on the data of abiotic environments and on those concerning ecology and biology of particular species, it was impossible to determine the causes of the mite fauna differentiation on both areas investigated.
Wydajność aparatu Macfadyena w wypłaszaniu roztoczy glebowych [in Polish]
The comparison was made of the Macfadyen's apparatus [10] productivity for driving away mites from identical soi! sampIes placed at the same time in the Tullgren's apparatus. Simultaneously it was tried to establish such initial temperatures and their gradients during driving away mites, as to ensure the highest Macfadyen's apparatus productivity. The highest relative productivity of the Macfadyen's apparatus has been obtained at the initial temperature of 25°C over soil sample at increase of its gradients during driving away for 7 days from 10°C to 21°C (experiment IV). In such conditions the Macfadyen's apparatus productivity is twice higher for Acari and about one and a half higher for Oribatei. Acari under exclusion of Oribatei (particularly of Trombidiformes) are being driven away with 4-fold intensity. In relation to Oribatei productivity of the apparatus in question is the highest for the smallest (specimens) and tenuidermic species (Brachychthoniidae and Suctobelbiidae families). Acari are driven away most intensively in the 2nd day of extraction, their driving away in the 3rd and 4th day being somewhat more intensive than in the 1st day. After 5 days only few of them come out. The experiments on the Macfadyen's apparatus productivity as compared to that of the Tullgren's apparatus are illustrated in Tables 1 and 2 and Figs 6-10.
Influence de l'humidité sur le géotactisme des Oribates (Acarina) dans l'extracteur de Berlese-Tullgren [in French]
This study investigates the reasons why the desiccation drives the oribatid mites out of the Berlese-Tullgren extractor. An upward desiccation gradient was experimentally induced in a modified Berlese-Tullgren extractor. Then the reaction of the mites was studied in samples treated in this way and compared with the one in normally extracted samples. It was stated that: The mortality due to the desiccation was negligible; during the upward desiccation, about one thousand Oribatei wandered from the reverse gradient samples. Only a few individuals came out of the normally extracted samples; at the end of the desiccation treatment, the lower part of the samples was much dryer than the upper one, and yet contained more Oribatei. On the other hand, the normally extracted samples were still very moist and had more oribatids in the upper parts. "The usual explanation for the working of the Berlese-Tullgren apparatus states that the mites are driven downwards out of the sample through the progression of a desiccation gradient. Ac­cording to our observations, this explanation cannot be maintained: this research has proved that (1.) above certain threshold of humidity (about 20-25% water), the oribatids are geonegative, and (2.) that they become geopositive below that threshold; this second reaction is used in the normal extraction apparatus. This new explanation agrees with the results of our laboratory experiment. In addition it seems very probable that it must be valid too for the vertical migrations of the Oribatei in natural conditions .
Réactions des acariens à une dessiccation lente de la litière [in French]
In the described experiment, litter samples were dried very slowly in a modified Berlese-Tullgren apparatus. The desiccation and the extraction of various Acarina were followed in function of time, the extraction process lasting on a total of 218 hours. It was possible to collect mites although humidity gradient almost certainly did not exist in the samples. This extraction was thus not attributable to an escaping for a downward desiccation gradient. By the studied Acarina, an important exodus occured when the samples had reached a moisture content of about 20 % (percentage of the dry weight). Those two facts need a completely new explanation which does not agree with the traditional one: another publication (NEF, in press) will formulate and substantiate that explanation. In some species, one part of the individuals went out of the sample a few hours after the experiment had started. This exodus shows no correlation with the desiccation process, nor seems to be a «disturbance activity». We have no valuable explanation for that reaction.
The roles of desiccation and temperature in the Tullgren-funnel method of extraction
The results of some preliminary experiments suggest that desiccation is the factor mainly responsible for the movement of Acarina and Collembola out of litter samples in the Tullgren-funnel method of extraction. It is suggested that in dry air many species of these animal groups respond in a positively geotactic manner, with a reversal of this behaviour in a humid environment.
Comparaison de l'efficacité de différentes variantes de l'appareil de BERLESE‐TULLGREN [in French]
The efficiency of five variants of the Berlese Funnel were compared with view of finding an optimal extraction method and of the ecological study of the microarthropods. About the first point the following was ascertained : a. For a given substratum, each group (or species) has one optimal method which may differ from that suitable for another group. So there is no "one" method having the optimal efficiency for all the groups (or spe­ cies). b. It frequently happens that, for a given group, the output differs in accor­dance to the handled substratum. c. For a given substratum, the yields obtained by various workers are seldom parallel for similar methods. The conclusion is that the microarthropods react diversely according to the utilized method and according to the substratum. Therefore those who undertake researches on the soil fauna, have to be recommanded to initiate with a preliminary experiment giving the best adapted method to the sub­stratum and to the animal group they study. However, it seems proved that a too rapid desiccation joined to a too high temperature brings efficiency losses; the same is true for methods with a too slow desiccation. In general it seems also that a milder method is more effective for a very humid substratum, and that a strengther one (more rapid desiccation) is more suitable for a dryer substratum. The second part furnished the following statements: a. The species, genus, etc., that one would bring together to form a syste­matic (e.g. "oribatidae"), or physiologic (e.g. "immature acarina") or morphologic group (e.g. "thick skinned acarina") may react very diversely. Hence it is advisable neither to bring up nor, chiefly, to study such groups considered as homogeneous entities. b. It happens regularly that a given species reacts diversely according to its habitats. c. It was ascertained, mainly among the Oribatids, that there is a relation between the ecological preferences and the more efficient method; further, this optimal method seems also related to the substratum.
Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene Abt. 2
Vergleich bodenzoologischer Auslesemethoden für Kleinarthropoden
The quantitative study of soil meiofauna I. The effect of sample treatment on extraction efficiency with a modified funnel extractor
Construction details of the split-funnel extractor, a modified funnel method for extracting soil fauna are given, together with results of an experiment to test the apparatus, and the effect of sample treatment on extraction of Acarina from heathland samples.
Sticky traps for the study of animals inhabiting the soil surface
Glass plates coated with a sticky material and laid on the soil surface have caught large numbers of Collembola on occasion. This simple method may have a limited use in investigations of active insects inhabiting the surface of the ground.
A centrifugal-flotation extraction technique and its comparison with two funnel extractors
The numbers of Acarina and Collembola extracted from sand, chernozem and loam by three mthods are compared. Centrifugal flotation recovered a greater number of Acarina and Collembola than the large or small funnel method with all soils. The funnel samples were subjected to centrifugal flotation after extraction but despite this treatment, with the exception of the loam soil, in no case did the total numbers recovered reach those obtained by flotation extraction alone.
The Use of Chloropicrin with a Berlese Funnel
On a method of separating insects and other arthropods from soil
Sur l`efficacité de l`appareil de Tullgren en fonction du volume de l´échantillon de sol soumis à l`extraction [in French]
Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 2 Microbiological and Biochemical Properties
A review of sampling and monitoring methods for beneficial arthropods in agroecosystems
Beneficial arthropods provide many important ecosystem services. In agroecosystems, pollination and control of crop pests provide benefits worth billions of dollars annually. Effective sampling and monitoring of these beneficial arthropods is essential for ensuring their short- and long-term viability and effectiveness. There are numerous methods available for sampling beneficial arthropods in a variety of habitats, and these methods can vary in efficiency and effectiveness. In this paper I review active and passive sampling methods for non-Apis bees and arthropod natural enemies of agricultural pests, including methods for sampling flying insects, arthropods on vegetation and in soil and litter environments, and estimation of predation and parasitism rates. Sample sizes, lethal sampling, and the potential usefulness of bycatch are also discussed.
Flotation technique for extracting eggs of Diabrotica spp. and other organisms from soil
A simple, rapid, inexpensive method of extracting eggs of Diabrotica spp. and other soil fauna from soil by utilizing flotation has been devised. Such use of flotation is not a new technique. Kevan (1962) stated that in 1936 W. R. S. Ladell utilized a magnesium sulfate solution upon which to float soil arthropods. Since then different workers have used several types of apparatus and solutions. Most involve a complicated combination of sieves and funnels. In general, they are designed to aid in survey work in which viability of specimens after extraction is not important. Salt solutions containing magnesium sulfate, sodium chloride, or potassium bromide are most commonly used for flotation. However, in collecting nematodes Coveness and Jensen (1955) utilized a centrifugal flotation of soil in sugar solution.
Comparison of two methods of estimating efficiency of funnel extractors for soil microarthropods
Tullgren funnels and a high-gradient apparatus, with a printed circuit-board heater, were used to evaluate the efficiency of funnel extractors for soil microarthropods by two methods: (i) sterile cores into which known numbers of animals were introduced, and (ii) field soils with their natural populations. After extraction, the field samples were examined microscopically for residual animals. Qualitatively, extraction was 100% for methods in both instruments, but the number of specimens per species recovered was less than 100%. There was no significant difference between the total numbers of mites obtained by the two extractors, recoveries ranging from 85 to 98 %. However, from field soils, the high-gradient apparatus recovered about 73 % of the Collembola, a significantly higher proportion than the 45 % recovered by the Tullgren funnels. The two methods of testing efficiency showed general agreement for most species and orders of mites, but known introductions usually gave significantly lower estimates than field populations. Discrepancies between methods were observed for Discourella modesta, Alicorhagia fragilis, Carabodes sp., Malaconothrus sp., Nanhermannia dorsalis, Oribatella sp. and Phthiracaridae species. Further refinements in technique are required for these species and certain groups within the Collembola.
Temporal and spatial dynamics in soil acoustics and their relation to soil animal diversity
The observation and assessment of animal biodiversity using acoustic technology has developed considerably in recent years. Current eco-acoustic research focuses on automatic audio recorder arrays and acoustic indices, which may be used to study the spatial and temporal dynamics of local animal communities in high resolution. While such soundscapes have often been studied above ground, their applicability in soils has rarely been tested. For the first time, we applied acoustic and statistical methods to explore the spatial, diurnal, and seasonal dynamics of the soundscape in soils. We studied the dynamics of acoustic complexity in forest soils in the alpine Pfynwald forest in the Swiss canton of Valais and related them to meteorological and microclimatic data. To increase microclimatic variability, we used a long-term irrigation experiment. We also took soil samples close to the sensors on 6 days in different seasons. Daily and seasonal patterns of acoustic complexity were predicted to be associated with abiotic parameters—that is, meteorological and microclimatic conditions—and mediated by the dynamics of the diversity and activity of the soil fauna. Seasonal patterns in acoustic complexity showed the highest acoustic complexity values in spring and summer, decreasing in fall and winter. Diurnal acoustic complexity values were highest in the afternoon and lowest during the night. The measurement of acoustic diversity at the sampling site was significantly associated with soil communities, with relationships between taxa richness or community composition and acoustic complexity being strongest shortly before taking the soil samples. Our results suggest that the temporal and spatial dynamics of the diversity and community composition of soil organisms can be predicted by the acoustic complexity of soil soundscapes. This opens up the possibility of using soil soundscape analysis as a noninvasive and easy-to-use method for soil biodiversity monitoring programs.
Publisher: Public Library of Science San Francisco, CA USA
Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science
Notes on methods for the extraction of small soil arthropods by the high gradient apparatus
Since the principle of the high gradient extractor for soil arthropods (MACFADYEN 1961) has now been quite widely accepted and a number of models have been constructed by other authors, a short study of the use of different materials on performance and design characteristics has become necessary. The most critical design feature is the transmission of heat from the lower surface of a soil sample to the cooling system and this can be seriously affected by the use of different construc­tional materials. Care must also be taken in constructing an adequate heat baffle between upper and lower chambers. The practical implementation of these objectives using cheap, readily available materials is illustrated.
Control of humidity in three funnel-type extractors for soil arthropods
Three extractors are described in which the principle of humidity control beneath the sample is achieved by different methods. The controlled-draught funnel is a large extractor for use with animals about 1 cm long where the humidity is derived from the sample and is controlled by manipulating the draught passing through the funnel. Different heating regimes are required for different species. The other extractors are micromodels for small arthropods. In the high-gradient cylinder, for undisturbed samples, temperature and humidity are controlled by an electric heater above, and a cold water-bath beneath, the samples. In the air-conditioned funnel, for soils and litter where an undisturbed sample cannot easily be obtained, a stream of air of suitable temperature and humidity is circulated beneath the sample. Preliminary tests indicate that the cylinder model is greatly superior to the earlier high-gradient funnel. Results with a prototype of the air-conditioned funnel suggest that it is superior to the latter method but inferior to the high-gradient cylinder extractor.
A comparison of methods for extracting soil arthropods
No single perfect technique for the quantitative extraction of soil animals from all types of soil is likely to exist for a very long time. On the other hand there are methods which result in 100 per cent extraction of certain animals from certain soils. According to the type of problem one wishes to study and the factors in the situation which need to be assessed correctly one should attempt to use methods in circumstances where accuracy is known. Where this is not possible existing methods will certainly have to be altered and adapted and it is certainly essential that such alterations should be based on carefully conducted experiments and on sound statistical methods.
A comparison of sieving and oil flotation methods for quantitative assessment of mite populations in grain
Separate populations of two species, Acarus siro L. and Glycyphagus destructor (Schrank), were used to inoculate grain with a known number of mites. Regardless of differences in species and original levels of infestation, recovery by oil flotation was never less than 75%, whereas that by sieving never exceeded 43% of true mite population. Moreover, flotation extraction from the sieved wheat recovered up to 60% of the population not extracted by the sieving technique. Sieving efficiency was also shown to be strongly biased by species differences, whereas flotation extraction varied little between the two species at a fixed density. Thus, sieving grossly underestimated the true level of infestation and was inconsistent and unreliable for quantitative estimation of mite populations in grain.
A simplified canister-type soil arthropod extractor
Extraction from soil of apterous Pemphigus populitransversus (Hemiptera: Pemphigidae) feeding on cruciferous vegetable roots
The poplar petiolegall aphid, Pemphigus populitransversus Riley (Hemiptera: Pemphigidae), is a gall-forming aphid attacking leaf petioles of Populus spp., its primary hosts. Its secondary hosts are the roots of cruciferous (Brassicaceae) plants, where it is also commonly known as the “cabbage root aphid.” The apterous forms are destructive pests of cruciferous vegetables in many parts of the world. In our experiments, the root-feeding apterous forms were extracted from the soil using a Berlese funnel, which drives the aphids downward by using light and heat. The results show that a majority of apterous aphids (96.9%) were extracted from the soil in 2 h by using a 15-W light bulb in the Berlese funnels, whereas only 18.2% of aphids were extracted using a 25-W light bulb in a similar time period. The 25-W light bulb in the funnel generated too much heat (40-44°C), which dried the soil too fast so that the aphids were unable to crawl downward to the collecting jars or killed the aphids directly. The advantages of using a Berlese funnel equipped with a 15-W light bulb as the light and heat source for sampling and extraction of the root feeding aphids include a uniform handling of each sample, less time spent, extraction of many samples at the same time, and storage of the aphids in containers for later counting in the laboratory. This technique seems to also be useful for extracting other mobile, small soil-dwelling arthropods.
Sampling of soil microarthropods from coniferous forest podzol
Microarthropods were extracted from soil samples by a Macfadyen high gradient apparatus and effects of different treatments during the complete sampling procedure were studied. The number of animals killed during sampling was reduced by making the inner diameter of the corer larger than the diameter of the cutting edge (37 mm vs. 36 mm). A corer constructed for sampling soil through snow in the winter is briefly described. Apterygota and Acarina were extracted from raw humus. The efficiency was found to be highly dependent on the extraction speed (i .e. the heat regime of the apparatus). Storage of soil samples for up to a month at +2 to + 3°C did not cause any significant mortality, but the representation of the youngest size classes may alter. Therefore, the effect of storage is dependent on the reproductive state of the population.
Comparison of relative efficiency of methods for the extraction of soil microarthropods
The relative efficiency of one mechanical method (the Grease Film) and four dynamic methods (namely the MACFADYEN air-conditioned funnel, the Modified Rothamsted funnel, the Kempson, Lloyd and Ghelardi infra-red extractor, and the Leeds funnel) has been compared on four different soil types (an acid brown soil, a calcareous loam, a clay loam, and a sandy loam) and on two separate occasions. No dynamic method was consistently the best for all soil types, but the mechanical method yielded the best results, from all four soil types, for Onychiurus spp. and Tullbergia spp. (Collembola: Onychiuridae).
Characteristics and efficiencies of four dynamic-type extractors
Results are given for the distribution of temperature and humidity in the soil cores from a calcareous loam soil, during the extraction process in four dynamic extraction methods and the emergence pattern of acarine and collembolan species in relation to temperature and humidity changes in the cores. The results suggest that the emergence patterns of the species can be divided into four: (a) "early unimodal", (b) "late unimodal", (c) "bimodal" and (d) "ill-defined" patterns. The factors that may be influencing these patterns are outlined. The results also allow one to evaluate the relative roles of temperature and relative humidity both on the emergence patterns and the overall efficiency of a dynamic extraction. It appears that temperature was most important factor governing the emergence of certain individuals from the soil while for certain others humidity was found to be more important.
The relationship between temperature and humidity and the efficient extraction of Acarina by a dynamic type method
The results of an attempt to ascertain the role of temperature and humidity in the extraction of Acarina from soil cores using a dynamic type method are presented. The objective of keeping the humidity constant while the temperature was allowed to rise could not be fully attained and instead one set of soil cores was continually sprayed with water for the first 84 hours in an attempt to maintain a constant humidity and another set left as a control. An analysis of the results in both the experiment and the control samples indicates that the top and bottom temperature as well as the top and bottom humidities were positively correlated, while the temperature and the humidity at surface of the soil cores were negatively correlated. There was a definite correlation between the fall in humidity and the emergence of the acarine species from the samples, most species coming out when the humidity, at the bottom of the soil cores, was falling through 90% to 85%. It was also discovered that in the experiment most species of Acarina came out in largest numbers after the spraying of water was stopped, although some species came out more or less uniformly throughout the duration of the extraction. In the control samples, on the other hand, the emergence of the species fell into certain distinct patterns. With regard to efficient extraction of Acarina, the results suggest that for nearly all the species of Acarina, a method effecting a slow drying of the samples would be inefficient.
The relationship between temperature and humidity and the efficient extraction of Collembola by a dynamic-type method
The results of monitoring temperature and humidity changes and the extraction of seven collembolan species from soil samples, some sprayed with water in an attempt to maintain a constant humidity and same left as a control are presented. In both experiment and control samples the top and bottom temperatures as well as the top and bottom humidities were positively correlated while the temperature and the humidity at either surface of the samples were negatively correlated. There is a definite correlation between the fall in humidity especially at the bottom of the samples and the emergence of the species from the samples, most species coming out when the humidity was falling from 90%. For an efficient extraction of most collembolan species a method effecting a slow drying of the samples appeared to be more suitable.
A power-driven self-propelled soil sifter for subterranean insects
A soil sifter for subterranean insect investigations
A soil sifting machine to facilitate investigations of subterranean insects, especially wireworms, is described.
Tullgren extraction of soil mites (Acarina): Effect of refrigeration time on extraction efficiency
Publisher: [Amsterdam; New York]: Elsevier,[c1985-
A new apparatus for separating insects and other arthropods from the soil
1. The published methods for the separation of insects and other animals from the soil are briefly described. 2. None of these methods being sufficiently rapid or efficient for soil fumigation investigations, a new method has been devised. 3. The principle of the method is flotation by a dense liquid (a solu­tion of magnesium sulphate sp. gr. 1.11) aided by stirring of the soil and a stream of fine air bubbles passing from the bottom upwards through the mixture of soil and solution. This produces a froth which contains all the animals, and by raising the level of the liquid in the cylinder the froth is swept over into a tank filled with magnesium sul­phate solution; here is deposited any soil that has been carried over. The clear solution is then passed on to a Buchner funnel where the insects and other animals are retained. A black filter paper is used in order to show up Collembola and other colourless organisms. 4. The apparatus has many advantages: (a) Rapidity. The separation taking 30-40 min. from taking the soil sample of 6-7 lb. weight. (b) Cleanliness. The operation can be carried out in an ordinary laboratory. (c) Efficiency. All the organisms ar concentrated in a small volume of residue, less than 1 per cent of the original soil, and are undamaged. (d) Non-toxicity. The great majority of the insects come through alive, so that eggs and larvae may be bred out for purposes of identifi­cation. 5. A full account is given of the techniq ue employed. The solution may be used again and again as the clay settles very quickly and the clear liquid may be syphoned or poured off. 6. Very high figures have been obtained for the soil population. These are much in excess of those recorded by most other workers with agricultural soils; for example, from fallow land 60·6 million animals per acre were recorded and from new grass land, 121·4 million per acre.
A preliminary note on sampling for soil animals
Extracting soil microarthropods with olive oil: A novel mechanical extraction method for mesofauna from sandy soils
Many soil ecologists still encounter practical difficulties when extracting microarthropods from the soil. Methods using a humidity gradient, established by the use of a heat source, for collecting soil animals appeared not sufficiently efficient in case of sandy soils. For such type of soils, flotation techniques proved more suitable. The use of toxic or aggressive flotation fluids like kerosene, dibromo ethane, carbon tetrachloride and heptane, however, makes these methods less favourable. To circumvent this problem, a novel technique has been developed based on the flotation principle but using olive oil. The method uses a pumping system that injects olive oil at the base of a Perspex column in which the soil sample is suspended in water using a propeller. In this way, intensive contact between oil droplets and the organisms is established, increasing extraction efficiency. After stopping the propeller, animals can easily be collected from the oil floating to the water surface. Adding coloured mites to soil samples was used to determine extraction efficiency of the method. Average (±SD) recoveries of 82.7 ± 7.4% (n = 34) and 89.7 ± 10.0% (n = 10), respectively were obtained when extracting storage mites and predatory mites from a sandy soil.
Quantitative extraction of macro-invertebrates from temperate and tropical leaf litter and soil: Efficiency and time-dependent taxonomic biases of the Winkler extraction
Winkler extractors, a simple device presumed to extract macro-invertebrates efficiently from soil and litter samples, is being used increasingly in ecological surveys and functional studies of soil macro-invertebrate communities. In this study the extraction efficiency and taxonomic bias of the Winkler extraction are evaluated for extraction periods of 3 h up to 7 weeks, calibrated by hand-sorting after 7 weeks. The method extracts most macro-invertebrates completely or to a proportion of over 90% except Isopoda, Diplopoda and Mollusca. However, for an exhaustive result, a long extraction period of several weeks is necessary. For the most speciose group (adult beetles) and for the commonly most abundant group (ants), a short extraction of 3 days was sufficient to get 70% of the individuals and nearly all species. Three days was also sufficient to recover the rank abundance order of beetle families, while for ‘higher taxa’ and for Chilopoda species, 4 and 3 weeks were necessary, respectively. Optimum extraction times for the abundant macro-invertebrate groups and possible adjustment factors for the soil macro-invertebrates of temperate woodlands are proposed to compensate the taxonomic bias caused by short extraction periods. However, for recording an accurate snapshot of the soil and litter fauna at a particular time, shorter extraction periods are advisable because of the short life cycle of many soil invertebrates causing emergence of later stages or a second generation during longer extraction periods. The problem of contamination of samples is also discussed.
Populationsökologische Untersuchungen an Hypogastrura viatica Tullb. 1872 (Collembola) auf Schiermonnikoog [in German]
On the Wadden Island Schiermonnikoog lives a large population of the Collembola Hypogastrura viatica in a very interesting area, the so called beach plain. The development of this man-made area is shortly described. The numerical and distributive dynamics of the population of H. viatica are investigated by sampling and by field-experiments. The sampling methods are discussed and one of the results, viz the numerical fluctuation of the population density in the course of the year, is represented. Further the importance of food, moisture and shadow for the spatial distribution of the population is investigated by artificial supply of these factors under field circumstances.
Zikaden an Gräsern eines norddeutschen Kiefernforstes – Abundanz, Phänologie und ein Vergleich der Fangmethoden (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha) [in German]
Auchenorrhyncha communities on grasses in a north German pine forest - abundance, phenology and a comparison of sampling methods (Hemiptera). Auchenorrhyncha communities associated with Deschampsia flexuosa, Molinia caerulea and Calamagrostis epigejos in a pine forest in northem Germany were studied. A comparison of species composition and abundance based upon suction and heat-extraction samples (Eco-Vac, Kempson) revealed higher density estimates for most species in the former. Most abundant species were the delphacid planthopper Hyledelphax elegantulus (BOH.) and the typhlocybid leafhopper Dikraneura variata HARDY with maximum numbers of >1400 and >800 m-2, respectively. Species records, life cycles and sampling efficiency are discussed.
Informationen zu Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege in Nordwestdeutschland
Extraktionsmethoden für Bodenmesofauna [in German]
A survey of the most commonly used extraction methods for soil mesofauna is given. Mechanical and dynamic extraction procedures are discussed. Mechanical extraction is very efficient, but time consuming. Mobile and immobile stages as well as exuviae and dead animals are extracted equally well. Dynamic extraction methods rely on the mobility of the soil animals, which are in most cases expelled from the soil by using heat. Only mobile stages are extracted and the efficiency depends on soil type and humidity. Some suggestions for standardization are given.
The effect of temperature on the efficiency of extracting astigmatic mites from hay - a trial with a heat extractor
The effect of temperature on the extraction efficiency for Astigmata mites from hay was studied by comparing the results of heated and unheated extractors. In all, 1 560 Astigmata mites (mainly Acarus siro) were picked alive and half of them were placed into containers with mite-free hay of the heated and cooled extractor and half into the unheated extractor. Thus 780 mites were placed in each extractor, 30 to each container with 3 g of mite-free hay. The extractor was a modification of the so-called Lussenhop-device. The temperature of the heated extractor was raised gradually as follows: Starting point 30° C, second day 45° C, 3rd-4th day 55° C, 5-6th day 70° C and 7-9th days 90° C. The heat extractor was a modification of the so-called Lussenhop device with four 250 W lamps warming the sample from above. The extraction efficiency (85 %) for Astigmata was significantly higher in the high gradient extractor than in the unheated and uncooled extractor at room temperature (73 %). Also the repeatability of the former method was slightly better than of the latter. The results support the presumption suggested by NEF that heating has also an independent effect on extraction efficiency, in addition to its drying effect.
Publisher: London, HF & G. Witherby, Ltd
A new effective flotation method for the collection of nidicolous parasites and other nest inhabitants
The paper is based on experiments carried out with the aim of finding a new effective method and a suitable solution for flotation. 23 different solutions were used and 2 techniques were tried, using Balogh´s vessel and modified Erlenmeyer´s flasks. A total of 60 nests (50 nests of Delichon urbica, 8 nests of Passer domesticus, 2 nests of Micromy minutus) were used in the experiments. The results were evaluated according to the number of extracted arthropods and their quality in preparatious and were confirmed by a control floation. On the basis of all facts obtained the following solutions can be recommended for the flotation of nidicolous arthropods: a) flotation solution of technical tetrachloride (CCl4) and 96% denaturized alcohol (205:65) of specific gravity 1.400 (a newly used combination), b) technical tetrachloride of specific gravity 1.615, c) solution of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) in water (1:1) of specific gravity 1.525.
Efficiency of Sampling Oribatid Mites (Acari: Oribatida) from the Canopies of Broad-Leaved Trees in Japan: a Comparison between the Washing and Direct Methods
An alternative, portable method for extracting microarthropods from forest soil
Large forest complexes with few human inhabitants provide a valuable resource for understanding natural processes in an environment not directly impacted by humans. However, studies of such systems are difficult to conduct due to the frequent need for collected samples to be subjected to lengthy laboratory processing protocols that require them to be transported to often distant laboratories. The objective of this study was to devise an easy-to-transport field device for sampling soil invertebrates with a simple single-day protocol of extraction. Studies were conducted in order to compare the quantitative and qualitative extraction efficiency of soil invertebrates using this new method (8 h for extraction) and a well-established one, using the Tullgren funnel (168 h for extraction). We also tested the influence of cooling collected microarthropod samples for 7 days on extraction efficiency. Data indicated that the field extraction device was comparable in efficiency to the standard Tullgren extraction funnels and did not affect the results obtained on abundance, species richness and diversity. In addition, the methods did not differ in reference to unique species and the proportional abundance of extracted developmental stages. Results suggest that the field extraction device is time-efficient compared to currently used extraction protocols. Most importantly, the new device allows researchers to study and analyze soil mesofauna directly in the field without needing to transport samples back to the laboratory, thus decreasing the risk of losing sample integrity and spreading soil pathogens. We suggest it will be useful as a complement to other older techniques in the future.
Type of fixative solution in pitfall traps as a decisive factor affecting community parameters of Collembola (Hexapoda) inhabiting superficial subterranean habitats
Vertical distribution of collembolan communities along a depth gradient was studied at three forested karst scree slopes in the Western Carpathians, differing in topography, microclimate, soil-chemical parameters, and forest associations. Two different fixative solutions were used in subterranean pitfall traps. The activity and species richness of Collembola in the vertical scree profiles were significantly higher in traps filled with ethylene glycol than in those filled with formaldehyde at all three sites. Using traps filled with formaldehyde, both Collembola species numbers and activity positively correlated with the soil moisture and carbon content, while for ethylene glycol traps this relation was the same only for species numbers and carbon content. Ecological groups of Collembola showed a different response, distinguished by the level of association to subterranean habitats, to environmental factors and to the fixation liquid used in the subterranean traps. Eutroglophiles, the forms relatively well-adapted to subterranean habitats, were associated with depth exclusively when using ethylene glycol traps. This implies that ethylene glycol is a more suitable preservative in terms of species richness and activity of Collembola in deeper scree layers compared to traditionally used formaldehyde. Thus, the effect of environmental factors on diversity and vertical distribution of Collembola in scree habitats may be substantially superimposed by the type of fixation used in subterranean traps.
A comparison of collecting methods in relation to the diversity of Collembola in scree habitats
We compared the species composition, relative abundances and life form structure of subterranean Collembola (Hexapoda) captured by two different methods along a depth gradient of five forested scree sites in the Western Carpathians, Slovakia: (1) high-gradient extraction of soil samples, and (2) collection using subterranean traps. Our results showed that the soil samples were more efficient in covering species richness at the majority of the sites. The body size of the captured animals depended remarkably on the sampling method. Extraction was more effective in collecting smaller, less active hemi- and euedaphic forms of Collembola, while collection by subterranean traps favoured both motile ground-dwelling as well as relatively large, active euedaphobionts. Additionally, different trends in the vertical stratification of Collembola life forms and their relative abundances were detected by the two methods. Atmobionts and epigeonts, forming the greater part of the communities in traps compared to soil samples, were distributed along the entire scree profiles, but their relative abundance and species numbers had a strongly decreasing trend with depth. Moreover, motile, large hemi- and euedaphic forms had high relative abundances in traps in the middle and deeper scree levels at three sites. In contrast, in soil samples the hemi- and euedaphobionts with small body size were abundant on the surface of the MSS sites. Thus, soil sampling applied before installation of subterranean traps may serve as an appropriate complementary technique to obtain a more complete pattern of Collembola diversity in forested scree habitats.
Pitfall-trapping as a method for studying surface dwelling Collembola
Pitfall-traps are used to study the phenology and activity phenomena of four surface dwelling Collembola e. g. Entomobrya nivalis (LINNE), Lepidocyrtus cyaneus TULLBERG, Orchesella cincta (LINNE) and Tomo­cerius minor (LUBBOOK). It is concluded that Entomobrya is active during the day, whereas Orchesella and Tomocerus are active during the night. As to Lepidocyrta no definite conclusion can be drawn. A digging-in effect is demonstrated for Tomocerus minor. A negative effect of the roofs appears during the day for Entomobrya nivalis and Lepidocyrtus cyaneus. Weather conditions exert an influence upon these surface dwelling Collembola.
Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Ökologie der Tiere
A thin soil-layer extraction method for arthropods.
Efforts to sample small terrestrial isopods using commonly-used methods of soil extraction were found unsatisfactory for a variety of reasons. A tech­nique was developed whereby a sifted, soil-litter sample was dispersed into a series of thin layers each having a high circumference/area ratio. The soil fauna abandoned these containers from their upper surfaces yielding ex­tremely clean extractions. For isopods, efficiencies of extraction exceeded 90 per cent with no bias observed between sexes or ages. A solution to the problem of sampling in habitats having large obstructions, tree roots, etc., is suggested where repeatable density indices are obtained. The operation and set-up of the method, using inexpensive standard laboratory items, are given in detail. The system should be adaptable for use with several groups of soil arthropods.
Über die Einsammlungsmethodik bei Untersuchungen der Bodenfauna
The Terrestrial Acari of the British Isles. Vol I: Introduction and Biology
Extracteur automatique de microfaune de soil à programmation pour études écologiques [in French]
Construction d'un appareil automatique pour couper les inclusions de sol dans la gélatine
Hot rod technique, a modification of the dry funnel technique for extracting Collembola especially from frozen soil
A new technique for extracting springtails from frozen soil samples is described. This hot rod technique is especially useful for treating samples taken from frozen soils, because its rapidity eliminates the possibility of »laboratory hatching». It has been compared with two (three) other extraction techniques. Some experiments were made to study the effect of storage of the samples upon the number and species composition of Collembola extracted. Anurophorus binoculatus (Ksen.) is reported from Finland for the first time.
A portable extractor for separating micro-arthropods from soil
A new design of high-gradient soil extractor is described. So that it is portable it was constructed largely of aluminium. As it was frequently necessary to use the extractor at sea, cold air from an air-conditioning unit was used to cool the underside of samples, whilst a fanheater and lights were used to heat the samples` surfaces. In trial studies large numbers juvenile arthropods, expecially Prostigmata, were extracted, indicating that the extractor was at least reasonably efficient. Some advantages and disadvantages of the design are considered.
Methods for Collecting, Preserving and Studying Insects and other terrestrial arthropods
En enkel apparat för automatiskt vittjande av sållgods [in Swedish]
Contributions to Soil Zoology in Central Europe I. Institute of Soil Biology, ASCR
Heat-extractor - an indispensable tool for soil zoological studies
The design, construction, use and efficiency of a heat-extractor are described. The apparatus was constructed for heat extraction of soil invertebrates from soil samples or sieved leaf litter. The presented apparatus is easy and inexpensive to construct and highly effective for the extraction of soil macrofauna, e.g. centipedes, millipedes, insects, arachnids and other soil invertebrates.
Different collecting methods reveal different ecological groups of centipedes (Chilopoda)
Soil invertebrates are studied by a number of methods. Here we used zoological methods (soil sampling, pitfall trapping, litter sifting, and hand collecting) to sample centipede communities in four floodplain forests (Czech Republic, Europe) and compared the efficiency of these methods. Heat-extraction from soil samples was the most effective, followed by pitfall trapping. The centipedes found by us can be divided into five ecological groups: 1) larger, abundant lithobiomorphs, 2) larger, scarcer lithobiomorphs, 3) smaller, soil lithobiomorphs, 4) abundant geophilomorphs, and 5) scarcer geophilomorphs.
Quelques techniques de récolte, de triage, d’observation et de conservation des Oribates (Acariens) et autre microarthropodes [in French]
Studier över insamlingstekniken vid undersökningar över markens djurliv
Medföljer Skogsvårdsföreningens Tidskrift
Methods of automatic collecting for studying the fauna of the soil
Om Berlese´s apparat för snabb och effektiv insamling af små leddjur [in Swedish]
An elutriation and sieving apparatus for extracting micro–arthropods from soil
Details are given of an apparatus employing a combination of elutriation and wet sieving for extracting micro-arthropods from soil. It is designed especially for the recovery without damage of light animals which are difficult to wet, such as Pauropoda and small Collembola, from samples having a high content of small mineral particles and a low organic-matter content.
A Tullgren-Funnel modification to prevent contamination of the collecting tube with sample debris
The apparatus is intended for the extraction of micro-arthropods. It consists of an aluminium funnel lined with plaster of Paris, and having a two-sieve arrangement to prevent sample debris falling into the collecting tube. The stem of the funnel is provided with a metal cover to prevent contamination of the tube with fine debris, which may pass through the second sieve.
Determination of low levels of mite and insect contaminants in food and feedstuffs by a modified flotation method
Extraneous material was separated from feed and food products by a modified technique in which kerosene is used in a specially designed flotation flask. This technique, although effective for analyzing feed and foods, presented limitations in the analysis of finely powdered materials. Some procedural modifications and an increased in the capacity of the flotation flask from 500 to 750 mL allowed a larger sample weight (20 g) to be analyzed for mites, insect fragments, and rodent hairs, with considerably reduced residue interference. In trials with a variety of products seeded with known numbers of mites, average recovery was 83%. Recoveries of 89% were obtained from flour samples seeded with insect fragments and rodent hairs. A new process of suspending extracted mites in a mixture of industrial methylated spirit (46%) and glycerol (54%) by volume was used to allow rapid and more precise estimates of mite populations in heavily infested samples.
Biases in extracting Collembola through Tullgren funnel
The extaction efficiency of a modified Tullgren funnel was examined for the samples taken form Otanomosu-no-Taira, Shiga Heights, in November, 1971, in a comparison with the hand-sorting. Regarding the results of hand-sorting as the «natural» fauna, the funnels used showed a very low extraction efficiency as follows: 16.0% for the whole collembolan assemblage: 20% to 30% for Hypogastrura denisana and Folsomia octoculata; and 18.8 % and 4.1 % for Friesea japonica and Onychiurus flavescens, respectively. From examination on Folsomia octoculata, it was revealed that the deficiency of Tullgren funnels was more intense in small-sized individuals than in larger ones. The ratio of hand-sorting/Tullgren funnel (H-T ratio) for each size class at 0.1 mm intervals decreased exponentially with the increase of body size of individuals. Between the ratio (y) and the body length (x), the following relationship was established. y= 2.95/x*1.92 The number of total individuals (N) of a natural population is given by N= sum(a/(xi*b))* ni, where ni is the number of individuals at xi size class of the funnel extraction and a and b are constant. Application of the correction equations to several model populations with different structure composed of 10,000 individuals per sq. m showed a remarkable divergence among models. The correction equations were also applied to a result on Folsomia octoculata already published. The «natural population» was largely different from the «Tullgren population» in population size. However, the patterns of phenological trend of both «populations» were fairly similar with each other. At any rate, it seems to be risky to regard the «TuIIgren population» as the «natural population» itself or its justified approximation.
On the extraction process and efficiency of MacFadyen's high gradient extractor
The changes in humidity and temperature through the extraction period were examined and were correlated with the emergence pattern of Collembola as a whole. The emergence pattern was shown for the Collembola as a whole and ten species of Collembola and three types of emergence patterns were distinguished among them. The emergence pattern of Collembola as a whole consisted of two phases and during the second phase, the desiccation of the soil was an important stimulus for the escape of individuals from the soil cores. The efficiency of this extractor was tested by direct count or hand sorting methods. The efficiency was tested on two occasions. The efficiency estimated was 28% (in summer) and 88% (in winter), for the Collembola as a whole. The extraction efficiency was estimated also for the dominant species and for the different size groups of Folsomia octoculata and Tullbergia yosii and the results showed that the efficiency varies with the species and the age of individuals in the same population. Some suggestion were made for ecological study.
The rate of extraction of soil micro-arthropods from a dry-extraction funnel
Relative efficiency of mechanical and behavioral methods for the extraction of soil arthropods
Since no single method is effective for the extraction of all groups of soil arthropods, mechanical (Flotation preceded by dry sieving) and behavioral (Tullgren funnel) methods were used at three sites at University Campus, Peshawar, Pakistan. It has been shown that the mechanical method, on the average, was 1,24 times more efficient than the behavioral method. Acari, Collbemola, Diplura, Diptera, Coleoptera (adults), Chilopoda and Symphyla were extracted by both methods; whil Homoptera, Thysanoptera, Coleoptera (larvae) and Isoptera were recovered only by mechanical method. Higher amount of vegetable matter in the soil generally facilitate the extraction by behavioral method. For all groups, except Collembola, the mechanical method came out to be more efficient than behavioral method. For Collembola and Acari, which appeared as dominanant groups, the relative efficiency of extraction methods was also determined for different vertical layers in the soil.
A survey of the arthropod soil and litter fauna of some forest reserves and cacao estates in Trinidad, British West Indies
1. An apparatus for the flotation-extraction of arthropod fauna from soil samples is described, and the sampling and extraction techniques used in the present investigation are shown to be sufficiently accurate for preliminary work on the gross arthropod fauna of soil and surface litter. 2. The ecological environment would seem to have a greater influence on the magnitude of the arthropod soil population than the gross soil type, although the latter undoubtedly has considerable influence on the type of arthropods inhabiting it. 3. Certain faunal groups (e. g. Hoplodermatid mites, termites, Nematocerous fly larvae) favour more or less specialized habitats, and only occur in large numbers in such habitats. 4. In every locality sampled, the Acarina form the dominant group of soil and litter animals, and their occurence seems to be related in some cases to the composition and abundance of the surface litter. Although the numerical populations for two or three ecologically different areas may be the same, the qualitative constitution of the populations may differ. 5. Distribution in depth falls off very rapidly after the first 2 or 3 in. Many forms do not seem to migrate deeper than 6 in. from the soil surface, and only mites and ants appear to occur in any numbers at the 9 in. level. In the light sand sampled at Arena Reserve, however, migration appeared to take place generally down to the 9 in. level, and many mites were found at a depth of 15 in. 6. The occurence of coccids, and their attendant ants, in relatively large numbers - expecially at River and Las Hermanas Estates, both regarded as "poor" in that the annual yield of cacao has decreased rapidly in the last few years - shows that at least one group of soil insects is probably doing economic damage to a plantation crop in Trinidad, and should provide an incentive for further work on the problem.
The efficiency of Tullgren apparatus with respect to interpreting seasonal changes in age structure of soil arthropod populations.
A Tullgren-type heat extractor for soil arthropods is described and its efficiency is tested by comparing the yields of extracted and hand-sorted soil cores, taken in pairs from a coniferous forest floor. Data are presented on the size structure of populations of two entomobryid collembolans, in summer and winter, analyzed by means of analysis of variance and contingency table techniques. The overall efficiency of the extractor exceeds 80%. No seasonal or size-specific biases in extraction efficiency could be demonstrated. From a review of the relevant literature since 1969, it is concluded that when the Tullgren procedure has a reasonably high efficiency, age-specific biases do not occur. Seasonal variation in extraction efficency has hardly been studied. The relevance of the paired comparisons design is discussed with reference to seasonal changes in spatial pattern.
An improved final sieve for use with the Salt and Hollick soil-washing apparatus
A practical difficulty in the Salt and Hollick technique is the time taken to complete the removal of the finer particles during the final sieving operation. The sieve described here has a set of removable sieve plates, and thus permits the selection of the maximum-sized sieve mesh that will at the same time retain the animal group under investigation.
A greased-belt technique for the extraction of arthropods from organic debris
Using this method 70-90% of the insects and arachnids present either as whole specimens or fragments can be extracted from various types of organic debris, including soil litter-layers. The apparatus has operated equally efficiently in extraction of nearly all the arthropods groups and fragment types present in the materials sampled. The exceptions are organisms with a maximum dimension of less than approximately 0.75mm, or greater than approximately 10.00mm. Sample material can be dealt with at the rate of more than 1 litre/hour and the machine can run for up to 10 hours without decrease in efficiency of extraction. The apparatus can be constructed inexpensively and easily, is simple to run and clean, and its efficiency on any type of sample material can easily be determined.
Variation in extraction efficiency between juvenile and adult oribatid mites: Ameronothrus lineatus (Oribatida, Acari) in a Macfadyen high-gradient canister extractor
A population of Ameronothrus lineatus (Acari, Oribatida) found living on homogeneous Cyanobacteria mats in Coles Bay on the high arctic archipelago of Svalbard, was used to study differential extraction efficiency between life cycle stages in a high-gradient dynamical extractor. The great advantage with this substrate was that the mites were easily seen on the Cyanobacteria surface and could be sampled by hand, and that juveniles in the pre-moult quiescent stage could be identified and sampled. Extracted specimens, as well as animals remaining on the surface of the samples after extraction, were counted, and accurate stage-specific extraction efficiencies were calculated. The experiment was carried out in June when no immatures had yet entered the pre-moult quiescent stage. Efficiencies of active mites varied from 29–36 % for juvenile instars to 75 % in adults. This demonstrated difference between adults and juveniles is reinforced by the fact that each juvenile instar includes a considerable period in the inactive pre-moult stage, remaining on the samples during a dynamic extraction. To investigate the occurrence of quiescence through the growth season, the Coles Bay population was regularly sampled during summer 1998. Quiescence, and hence moulting, was found to be highly synchronised. In population studies based on dynamical extraction, a synchronous quiescent stage will lead to time dependent biases in estimates of density and demography. These sources of sampling error, generally lower extraction efficiency of immatures as well as a pre-moult quiescent stage (possibly synchronised), have hardly been emphasised in population studies on oribatid mites. A field study of A. lineatus comparing proportions of adults in two populations – the one in Coles Bay where mites were hand sampled from the Cyanobacteria mats, and another one from Advent Valley where mites were dynamically extracted from soil – was used to illustrate the effect of these sources of sampling error. We suggest one means to address this problem.
Studies on soil animals in a remote region of Amazonia: particularly in relation to population assessment using field extractors
This study was undertaken whilst leading expeditions to the Amazon in 1978 and I981. Laboratory and field methods of extracting invertebrates in soil are reviewed so as to highlight the problems inherent in collecting soil animals in remote regions. The main problem is to find an efficient, portable extraction unit that will provide reliable population estimates suitable to the environment under study. Following a detailed analysis of available literature it was decided to test a chemical extraction unit using turpentine as a repellent. This was a modification of Lewis’s extraction unit (1970) which was successfully used to repel thrips from flower heads. A trial comparison of the chemical extractor with a dry Tullgren technique using soil samples from temperate oak woodland showed that there was insufficient difference between the results to demonstrate the unsuitability of either technique. However, when the two techniques were compared with soil samples from tropical rain forest in Amazonia, the dry Tullgren funnel collected more species than the chemical unit. Further, the dry Tullgren funnel results suggested a much higher and more realistic soil animal population estimate than the chemical extractor which in turn was more efficient than a hand-sorting technique. The literature on tropical soil animal studies is reviewed. A comparative study of the soil animals living in a cultivated field and tropical rain forest soil was undertaken using a chemical extractor. The inefficiency of this type of extractor renders the results inconclusive. The evidence does however suggest that the efficiency of the chemical extractor improved when repelling animals from the drier soil collected at the cultivated field. Though the Tullgren funnel was more efficient in isolating organisms and the number of species was greater, the chemical extraction unit was a simpler method and still produced a number of different species so could be a useful and more esisily managed tool for taxonomic investigations in remote areas. A limited number of soil cores collected two days after burning a cleared rain forest site demonstrated that the site still contained soil animals albeit in greatly reduced numbers. A modification of a type of corer used by Fletcher (1976) is described. This proved to be easily portable yet robust.
Notes on the extraction and quantitative estimation of the Acaridae (Acarina)
A brief account is given of some of the methods used for the recovery of mites (Acarina - Acaridiae) from stored products; only methods applicable to soil and litter samples are considered. These include flotation extraction, the display of living and dead mites for counting, and a sectored disk used for counting a small fraction of a sample of mites.
Evaluating the efficiency of sampling methods in assessing soil macrofauna communities in arable systems
The soil fauna is often a neglected group in many large-scale studies of farmland biodiversity due to difficulties in extracting organisms efficiently from the soil. This study assesses the relative efficiency of the simple and cheap sampling method of handsorting against Berlese–Tullgren funnel and Winkler apparatus extraction. Soil cores were taken from grassy arable field margins and wheat fields in Cambridgeshire, UK, and the efficiencies of the three methods in assessing the abundances and species densities of soil macroinvertebrates were compared. Handsorting in most cases was as efficient at extracting the majority of the soil macrofauna as the Berlese–Tullgren funnel and Winkler bag methods, although it underestimated the species densities of the woodlice and adult beetles. There were no obvious biases among the three methods for the particular vegetation types sampled and no significant differences in the size distributions of the earthworms and beetles. Proportionally fewer damaged earthworms were recorded in larger (25x25 cm) soil cores when compared with smaller ones (15x15 cm). Handsorting has many benefits, including targeted extraction, minimumdisturbance to the habitat and shorter sampling periods and may be the most appropriate method for studies of farmland biodiversity when a high number of soil cores need to be sampled.
Estimation of animal populations by extraction processes considered from the mathematical standpoint
The representation of natural processes by theoretical models is claimed to be a methodological necessity in population estimation. A simple extraction problem (that of estimating an initial population on the basis of partial extraction data) is considered, first as a numerical problem in extrapolation, and then more fully from the theoretical standpoint. The estimates given by mathematical models depend on the way the processes are conceived and formulated. The assumption of homogeneity may lead to serious underestima­tion. The effects of heterogeneity, whether in time or space or within the population, are basically similar and not analysable separately. Theoretical studies reveal some formidable inherent uncertainties.
The use of a flotation method in the collection of microarthropod from arable soil in India
The flotation method has been found more efficient than any behavioural method for extracting micr-arthropod from arable soil with little organic matter. It was found that by adopting a modification of Ladell´s flotation technique more time and material could be saved and higher precision could be obtained in counting. The froth collected by the flotation method was observed for population counts at three different time intervals i. e., 1 hr, 12 hrs and 18 hrs after processing the soil and maximum number of micro-arthropods were collected after a 12 hr interval.
A soil-washing device for use in wireworm investigations
An apparatus for separating eggs and young larvae of wireworms from field samples of soil by washing is described.
Some problems of collecting in remote areas
A calibration of the efficiency of Winkler eclectors for extracting Collembola at different humidities
It is often desirable to collect Collembola from remote locations where the usual extraction systems based on thermal gradients are simply impossible, e.g. for lack of adequate energy supplies. Winkler funnels are often used in such situations as zero-energy extractors of soil arthropods, but have not been calibrated for the collection of Collembola. Here we report a series of trials comparing densities and species-richness of Collembola in leaf moulds using parallel Tullgren and Winkler extractions. Each litter was tested separately with the Winkler funnel environment at low and at high humidity. Our results showed that Winkler funnels are a poor substitute for Tullgrens, under-recording species by 30% and densities by 78%, suggesting that the basic Winkler funnel method is not suitable for objective quantitative Collembola population studies.
Grease-film extraction of an arthropod: A modification for organic soils
Eine neue Sammelmethode für Collembolen [in German]
A modified Tullgren funnel for the collection of small invertebrates (mesobiota) in soil
A modified Tullgren funnel is described for the extraction of the mesobiota from soil and litter. This inexpensive apparatus is satisfactory for the use of both scientific research personnel and for high school and college biology students.
Rapid extraction of invertebrates from tropical forest litter using modified Winkler apparatus
The Winkler extractor is widely used for collecting both micro- and macrofauna from large samples of forest litter, but the long period of extraction that it demands and that allows continuous feeding and reproduction of target organisms is a serious drawback when samples are collected for subsequent stable isotope analysis. This problem is exacerbated in a humid tropical climate. In this study, we assessed the effectiveness of the modified Winkler apparatus equipped with heating plates placed inside each mesh bag. The study was performed at the end of the wet season in a mature forest and young forest plantation at Cat Tien National Park, southern Vietnam. The heating plates increased the temperature within the extractors by about 8ºC and accelerated the desiccation of litter in the mesh bags. The extraction speed of macrofauna from the forest litter was strongly increased and the number of mites collected nearly doubled in the modified extractors, though the extraction rates of collembolans were not affected significantly. Overall, our results suggest that the application of heating plates accelerates the extraction process while yielding large quantities of litter-dwelling animals.
A simplified gelatine embedding technique for sectioning litter and soil samples
A simplified procedure for embedding and sectioning litter and soil samples based on the procedure of ANDERSON & HEALEY (1970) but using inexpensive and common materials and equipment is. presented. Litter and soil sections made by this method are useful in providing a visual perspective not attainable by Tullgren or flotation extractions. Embedded sections are particularly useful in observing vertical stratification of biota, and evaluating potential interactions between microflora,. fauna, and soil composition and structure.
Further investigations of microarthropod populations using the Merchant-Crossley high-gradient extractor
Estimates of microarthropod populations from litter and soil at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory, North Carolina, vary considerably depending upon extraction method and technique. Estimates from high-gradient extractions are superior to estimates from both Tullgren funnel extraction and counts from examination of gelatin-embedded litter and soil samples. The high-gradient extractor designed by Merchant and Crossley (1970) is inefficient under conditions of high humidity. Microarthropods adhere to condensation on funnel walls. Funnels must be rinsed prior to removing sample vials. In spite of this problem, the design is superior to a similar apparatus employing canister collectors.
National Museum of Natural History Washington DC
Collecting and preserving insects and mites: Techniques and tools
Publisher: Systematic Entomology Laboratory, USDA
Kurzmitteilungen aus dem Sonderforschungsbereich 135 - Ökosysteme auf Kalkgestein
Verbesserte Extraktion der terrestrischen Bodenfauna im Vielfachgerät modifiziert nach Kempson und Macfadyen [in German]
A comparison of the Tullgren-funnel and flotation methods of extracting Acarina from woodland soil
Details are given of a comparison of the Tullgren-funnel and a modified Salt and Rollick flotation technique for extracting Acarina from mull and moder sites in woodland. There was no significant difference between methods for numbers of Acarina recovered from the mull site, but on moder, the number extracted by flotation was 44 per cent greater. There were marked differences in the numbers of certain groups and species, the flotation method being much more efficient in extracting Scutacaridae and hypopial forms (Acaridiae) among others. The numbers of certain oribatid mites recovered by the funnel method were significantly higher.
Cost‐efficiency of subsampling protocols to evaluate oribatid‐mite communities in an Amazonian savanna
Sampling oribatid mites in large areas using conventional methods is expensive, time-consuming, and this constrains their use in environmental monitoring programs. We used samples collected in 38 plots of 3.75 ha spread over 30,000 ha in an Amazonian savanna to evaluate the reduction in costs and person-hours in sampling and sorting and to elaborate cost-effective protocols. Ten samples per plot were collected and extracted using a Berlese-Tullgren apparatus. In the laboratory, samples were reduced to 50, 25, 12.5, and 6.25 percent of the initial content. Field-effort reduction was estimated by reducing the number of subsamples per plot. Dissimilarity matrices were generated using Bray–Curtis, Sørensen, and Chao–Sørensen indices. Correlations between each reduced-effort dissimilarity matrix and 100 or 50 percent sorting were used as an index of how much information was retained in reduced-effort sampling, and could still be used in multivariate analyses. The effects of most predictor variables on mite composition were detected in data based on every level of sample reduction. The intensive sampling was insufficient to reveal the full oribatid-mite fauna in the savanna; as more plots were sampled, more species were recorded. Our data indicate subsampling protocols for biodiversity assessment of oribatid mites in savanna that increase field and laboratory efficiency, and optimize both taxonomic and ecological aspects of the investigation.
Berlese-Tullgren funnel efficiency for soil arthropod extraction from typic argiudoll soils in Buenos Aires Province (Argentina).
The efficiency of the Berlese-Tullgren funnel as a method for soil arthropod extraction from typical argiudol soils in Buenos Aires Province (Argentina) was evaluated. Fifty-four samples were taken from agricultural, cattle grazing, and naturalized prairie soils in Navarro and Chivilcoy sites on two different occasions: may and august, 2009. On each date, 27 soil samples were taken from randomly selected 25 x 25 square samples 5 cm in depth. The samples were collected in 150 cm3 containers. The Berlese-Tullgren funnel method was then applied to each sample, followed by the flotation method with Magnesium Sulphate, to detect and quantify the information that is lost when only the Berlese method is used. The taxonomic groups found were Acari (Oribatida, Prostigmata, and Mesostigmata), Collembola, Diptera, and Hymenoptera. The non-parametric Wilcoxon test and a logistic regression were performed on the data. Significant differences were detected between methods for all the biological groups. Even though both methods extract the same taxa, the flotation method is more efficient in extracting Acari and Collembola, while the Berlese method is more efficient in retrieving Diptera and Hymenoptera.
Publisher: Asociacion Argentina de la Ciencia del Suelo
Studies of wireworm populations: I. A census of wireworms in pasture
A method has been developed, and is here briefly described, by means of which all the wireworm larvae of all stages can be collected from soil samples. By use of that method, complete wireworm populations have been obtained from soil samples of three types, two of which provide large homogeneous popu- lations for detailed study while the third gives information about the seasonal and spatial infestation of fields. These collections show that the wireworm population of English pasture land is on the average about three times as large as has been commonly supposed. Populations have been found ranging up to ten millions per acre in the top 12 in. of soil. In two pastures studied intensively throughout the year, the wireworm population has been found to consist of large numbers of small larvae, decreasing numbers of larger larvae, and comparatively few of the very large larvae that have usually been allowed to represent the population. Such a composition is shown to be characteristic of wireworm populations under old grass at all seasons of the year and in several fields in different parts of the country. This result suggests that in research on the wireworm problem it is desirable to take into consideration the whole wireworm population throughout the year, not merely the large larvae during the cropping season.
Effectiveness of pitfall trapping, Winkler and Berlese extraction methods for sampling ground-dwelling Coleoptera in tropical montane cloud forests
The evaluation of extraction efficiency of the widely employed sampling methods for the extraction of ground-dwelling Coleoptera indicate that pitfall traps tend ot overestimate large Coleoptera whereas the quadrate extraction methods (Berlese and Winkler extraction methods)entrap small ones. In a quest for the most effective sampling method for ground dwelling Coleoptera in a tropical montane evergreen forest in the Western Ghats, the efficiency of pitfall trap, Berlese and Winkler extraction methods were evaluated. Results showed that pitfall trap addressed the active beetles groups (Carabidae, Chrysomelidae, Leiodidae, Ptiliidae, Scydmaenidae and Staphylinidae) while quadrate extraction methods captured more of the beetles associated with moisture and sheltered areas (Curculionidae, Histeridae, Hydraenidae and Latrididae). When cost and time constraints limit the sampling, the Berlese extraction method is the best single quantitative sampling method and pitfall trap is ideal for qualitative estimates. When thoroughness at the cost of time and labour costs is permissible, a combination of pitfall trap with Berlese extraction enables an effective qualitative and quantitative estimation, and better faunal inventory studies. Also, a combination of Berlese method followed by floatation extraction towards the under-sampled families will enable cost effective and comprehensive sampling.
A comparison of the pitfall trap, Winkler extractor and Berlese funnel for sampling ground-dwelling arthropods in tropical montane cloud forests
Little is known about the ground-dwelling arthropod diversity in tropical montane cloud forests (TMCF). Due to unique habitat conditions in TMCFs with continuously wet substrates and a waterlogged forest floor along with the innate biases of the pitfall trap, Berlese funnel and Winkler extractor are certain to make it difficult to choose the most appropriate method to sample the ground-dwelling arthropods in TMCFs. Among the three methods, the Winkler extractor was the most efficient method for quantitative data and pitfall trapping for qualitative data for most groups. Inclusion of floatation method as a complementary method along with the Winkler extractor would enable a comprehensive quantitative survey of ground-dwelling arthropods. Pitfall trapping is essential for both quantitative and qualitative sampling of Diplopoda, Opiliones, Orthoptera, and Diptera. The Winkler extractor was the best quantitative method for Psocoptera, Araneae, Isopoda, and Formicidae; and the Berlese funnel was best for Collembola and Chilopoda. For larval forms of different insect orders and the Acari, all the three methods were equally effective.
A portable apparatus for the extraction from leaf mould of Collembola and other minute organisms
New litter trap devices outperform pitfall traps for studying arthropod activity
Soil fauna play a key role in nutrient cycling and decomposition, and in recent years, researchers have become more and more interested in this compartment of terrestrial ecosystems. In addition, soil fauna can act as ecosystem engineers by creating, modifying, and maintaining the habitat for other organisms. Ecologists usually utilize live catches in pitfalls traps as a standard method to study the activity of epigeic fauna in addition to relative abundance. Counts in pitfall traps can be used as estimates of relative activity to compare among experimental treatments. This requires taking independent estimates of abundance (e.g., by sifting soil litter, mark–recapture), which can then be used as covariates in linear models to compare the levels of fauna activity (trap catches) among treatments. However, many studies show that the use of pitfall traps is not the most adequate method to estimate soil fauna relative abundances, and these concerns may be extensible to estimating activity. Here, we present two new types of traps devised to study activity in litter fauna, and which we call “cul-de-sac” and “basket traps”, respectively. We experimentally show that, at least for litter dwellers, these new traps are more appropriate to estimate fauna activity than pitfall traps because: (1) pitfall traps contain 3.5 more moisture than the surrounding environment, potentially attracting animals towards them when environmental conditions are relatively dry; (2) cul-de-sac and basket traps catch ca. 4 more of both meso- and macrofauna than pitfall traps, suggesting that pitfall traps are underestimating activity; and (3) pitfall traps show a bias towards collecting 1.5 higher amounts of predators, which suggests that predation rates are higher within pitfall traps. We end with a protocol and recommendations for how to use these new traps in ecological experiments and surveys aiming at estimating soil arthropod activity.
Paraffin flotation for archaeoentomological research: is it really efficient?
Paraffin flotation has been used extensively in archaeoentomology and paleoentomology in the last four decades but not tested systematically. Its efficiency is here assessed. Eighty-five percent of the identifiable coleopteran remains were recovered regardless of any variables. Some explanations of the method’s variable efficiency given in published literature were tested, namely the experience of the technician, the nature of the residue, and the taxon and body part. Difference in recovery rates between four categories of workers proved significant. Residue type influences the efficiency of the method but the type of sclerite was of little importance in the process. Overall, however, paraffin flotation was shown to be sufficiently efficient and its continued use is recommended.
Zur Auslesemethode der Waldboden‐Kleinfauna [in German]
1. Um die beiden bodenbiologisch bedeutsamsten Tiergruppen, die Milben und Collembolen aus dem Waldboden zu erfassen, wurde in Anlehnung an Schimitschek und Franz ein “Deckeltrichter” konstruiert, mit dessen Hilfe die zarten, temperaturempfindlichen Kleintiere des Waldbodens gut ausgelesen werden können (Fehlerprozent nicht höher als 10). Dabei wurde vor allem auf eine gleichmäßige und nicht zu hohe Erwärmung des Trichterinnern, d. h. der Bodenprobe (bis etwa 28 Grad C.) gelegt. 2. Mit Hilfe der “Deckeltrichter” ist die gleichzeitige Auslese von mehreren Bodenproben unter denselben Bedingungen möglich. Sie gestatten die serienweise Durchführung von Analysen.
Monitoring of soil organisms: a set of standardized field methods proposed by ISO
Following the need for methods suitable for the assessment of the habitat function of soil (i.e. the ability of soil to act as an environment for organisms), particularly in Europe, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is harmonizing a standard called “soil quality—sampling of soil invertebrates” now include as many as four parts that are currently close to finalization: (1) ISO/DIS 23611-1: hand-sorting and formalin extraction of earthworms; (2) ISO/DIS 23611-2: extraction of microarthropods (Collembola and Acarina); (3) ISO/CD 23611-3: extraction of enchytraeids; (4) ISO/WD 23611-4: sampling, extraction and identification of free-living stages of terrestrial nematodes. All drafts cover the technical details of the most appropriate methods, but also contain modifications of the methods required in special cases (e.g. when working in different climatic regions like the tropics). It is proposed to use these methods in all studies collecting data on soil organism communities for legal purposes such as long-term monitoring or soil quality assessment.
Note on a flotation apparatus for removing insects from soil
In studies on the life histories and habits of root maggots and their predators in Prince Edward Island, a method was required by which larvae and puparia could be separated uninjured from soil. The flotation methods desribed recently by Lafrance (1) and Read (2) for collecting puparia were unsuitable because of the stirring or pressure mechanisms, which often injured the insects. A new apparatus lacking these mechanisms was developed and provided a rapid and efficient method for separating many kinds of insects from sandy, loam, or clay loam soils.
Publisher: NRC Research Press Ottawa, Canada
Flotation methods for extracting soil arthropods
In the Salt and Hollick extraction process there are three stages: wet sieving, flotation and an oil-separation stage where the arthropods are separated from organic debris. Reference is also made to two modifications of the method: a large-scale adaptation suitable for advisory work, and a small-scale apparatus for micro-arthropods.
A flotation extraction process for soil micro-arthropods
Transporte y manipuleo de las muestras de suelo y su efecto sobre la micro y mesofauna [in Spanish]
Influence de la manipulation et du transport des prélèvement de sot sur la micro- et la mésofaune Une première serie d'expériences a montré que le rendement de l'extraction des prélèvements de sol conservé pendant 24 jours dans des sacs fabriqués avec différents matériaux était par ordre décroissant de rendement: sacs en polyéthylène (A), sacs en polyéthylène avec des trous (D), sacs en coton maintenus humides en permanence par arrosage journalier (E), sacs en polyéthylène frappés et manipulés tous les jours (F), sacs de double papier (C), sacs en coton (B). Une deuxième série d'expériences a montré que, pour les Acariens, les sacs (E) sont plus rentables que les sacs (A), tandis que, pour les Collemboles, il est indifférent d'employer l'un ou l'autre materiel. Le nombre total des individus pour les collemboles ne change pas dans les sacs de polyéthylène pendant 61 jours. Le nombre des espèces subit une diminution de 7 à 3. Une troisième série d'expériences a montré qu'il n'existe pas de différences en soumettant les sacs de polyéthylène à l'influence de la lumière du laboratoire ou en les conservant à l'obscurité totale. La faune totale a montré une diminution entre le 20° et le 40 jour et s'est rétablie au bout de 120 jours.
Obecna sytuacja w zakresie metodyki ilościowych badań roztoczy glebowych [in Polish]
The present situation in the field of methods used for the quantitative investigations of soil Acarina. The author describes two groups of methods of obtaining Acarina from soil samples. The flotation methods, based on the differences in specific gravity of organic and non-organic substances, have been adapted to quantitative investigations of soil Acarina only since the modifications introduced by Raw (1955) and Müller and Naglitsch (1957). The former techniques described by Ladell (1936) and Salt and Hollick (1944) were not sufficiently sensitive. Flotation methods posess among others, the following advantages: they reveal the immobile stages (eggs and pupae), they permit of obtaining live material, and samples may be kept for any desired length of time. They are, however, suitable only for more mineral soils, and their efficiency has not so far been absolutely established (only in relation to the Tullgren apparatus). The second group is formed by methods based on the use of a funnel apparatus (Tullgren´s apparatus). This apparatus constructed originally for the purpose of obtaining large numbers of animals for systematic research, was later applied to the ecological quantitative research. At the present time, after carrying out many improvements and alterations, it is commonly used for investigating soil Acarina. The funnel apparatus is suitable for all kinds of soil, for both field and laboratory use and its absolute efficiency is known (Forsslund (1948). Its fundamental weakness is the lengthy period of extraction and relatively large losses. All quantitative data so far obtained on soil Acarina are burdened with a serious error in minus. The author considers Forsslund´s data (1943), and the values similar to them (Rajski 1961a) obtained by means of calculating the errors of the Tullgren apparatus, as the closest to reality.
Combining pitfall traps and soil samples to collect Collembola for site scale biodiversity assessments
Collembola are rarely included in landscape-level biodiversity assessments, large-scale surveys and monitoring projects because huge numbers of specimens would accumulate even in moderately sized programmes. Budgets are always limited, so sampling methods and identification need to be optimized. As no single sampling method collects all collembolan species equally well, we tested the efficiency of a combination of six pitfall traps and five soil subsamples in 30 oil seed rape fields in Eastern Austria. Work effort in man hours for sampling, sorting and identification was quantified for each method and related to the species richness of the collected fauna. Total identification effort was four times higher for the soil subsamples than the pitfall traps, however, soil samples also yielded more species (53 and 34, respectively). Out of the 70 species collected in total, an average of thirteen species per site was found in the pitfall samples, seventeen in the soil subsamples and 25 when combining the two methods. Using more than six pitfall samples alone would not have collected considerably more species. For the soil subsamples, still more species can be expected with the processing of more than five subsamples, but this would also result in higher costs. When including Collembola in large scale biodiversity assessments, surveys or monitoring projects, we therefore recommend combining the two methods. In combination, the identification of the catch from only two pitfalls and two soil subsamples already collected more than the average number of species in five soil subsamples or six pitfalls, respectively. Thus, combining the methods yielded a more complete picture of the collembolan community of a site than either method alone.
Extracting aquatic mites from stream substrates: a comparison of three methods
Aquatic mites (Hydrachnida, Oribatida, Halacaroidea) are diverse, and can reach high densities in the substrates of streams and rivers. Although they are a ubiquitous component of these habitats, their small size means that they are often overlooked. Using substrate samples from streams in tropical Queensland, I compared the thoroughness and time-based efficiency of three methods of extraction: sorting live samples without magnification (livepicking); exhaustive sorting of preserved samples using a dissecting microscope (microscopepicking); and kerosene-flotation of preserved samples followed by sorting with a dissecting microscope (kero-float). Live-picked samples yielded significantly fewer individuals and species than other methods, and were biased towards larger species. Oribatids and halacarids were not found when live-picking was used. Live-picking and kero-float methods provided similar numbers of mites per minute of sampling effort, whereas microscope-picking had a lower efficiency than kero-float. A combination of live-picking and kerosene-floatation is recommended for thorough surveys of stream acarofauna.
Comparison of pitfall traps and litter bags for sampling ground‐dwelling arthropods
For their simplicity and effectiveness, pitfall traps have become a standard technique to measure the activity and relative abundance of ground-dwelling arthropods. Permeable screen or mesh bags filled with plant material, referred to as litter bags, have also recently been employed as a complementary sampling technique for epigeal taxa. The anticipated need for increased field research on arthropod populations, particularly in transgenic crops with insecticidal properties, suggests that a relative assessment of both sampling methods could contribute to the design of future studies. Comparisons among pitfall traps, and litter bags placed above- or below-ground indicated that aboveground litter bags most frequently succeeded in collecting certain groups of arthropods associated with moisture and sheltered areas, including centipedes (Chilopoda) and beetle larvae (Carabidae, Staphylinidae). Conversely, pitfall traps most often captured taxa considered active at ground level, such as adult carabids or harvestmen (Opiliones). For taxa collected in >40% of all three trap types, bootstrap confidence intervals for the coefficient of variation (CV; used to assess precision or sampling efficiency) showed that above-ground litter bags were significantly more precise than pitfall traps for sampling elongate springtails (Collembola) and adult rove beetles (Staphylinidae), but only during the first year of sampling. While below-ground litter bags often appeared similar to one or both of the other trap types, in no case were below-ground litter bags best based on frequency of collection or CV. Though differences were not always consistent between years, results suggest that the additional effort required to sample using litter bags may be justified for the collection of some ground-dwelling taxa.
Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Fauna der Waldstreu. Kiefernstreu-Untersuchungen [in German]
The problem of sampling a grassland insect population
A modified high-gradient extractor for multiple samples of soil macro-arthropods
A modified version of the high-gradient extractor designed by KEMPSON, LLOYD & GHELARDI (1963) is described. It is based on 4 electrically refrigerated cooling trays capable of holding a total area of 6 m2 of soil samples held in sample sleeves within standard plastic household buckets. The temperature of the pooling trays can be varied independently of the heating lighting unit above the samples so that gradients of up to 35°C and 95 % relative humidity can be gradually established across the samples. The efficiency of the extractor was evaluated by comparison with draught controlled, large funnel extractors as designed by MACFADYEN (1961). Slightly (but not significantly) more soil arthropods were obtained from samples of grassland heaths using the new high-gradient bucket extractor than when using the large funnel extractors. Comparison of the size frequency of isopods showed no significant differences in the size distribution of the specimens extracted by the two methods. The value of an extractor that can be used to extract animals from several different populations simultaneously is discussed in relation to current developments in soil zoology theory.
A comparison of terrestrial arthropod sampling methods
Terrestrial arthropods are extremely important ecosystem components. The choice of best approaches to collect the wide range of terrestrial arthropods has been a topic of long-lasting debates. This article provides a brief overview of common sampling methods for terrestrial arthropod assemblages. We divide sampling methods into three main categories: passive sampling methods without any “activity density” bias, passive sampling methods with an “activity density” bias, and active sampling methods with inherent “activity density” and often further species-dependent biases, discussing their individual advantages and shortcomings as basis for biodiversity studies and pest control management. The selection of the optimal sampling methods depends strongly on the purpose of individual studies and the ecology and behavior of the arthropod groups targeted. A combination of different suitable methods is highly recommended in many cases.
Efficiency of extracting microarthropods from the canopy litter in a Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) plantation: a comparison between the washing and Tullgren methods
We compared the efficiency of washing versus the Tullgren method for extracting microarthropods from dead leaves and branches in the canopy of Cryptomeria japonica trees. Oribatida and Collembola were consistently the numerically dominant taxa of microarthropods, but the relative abundance differed between the two extraction methods. Oribatida accounted for more than 70% of all the microarthropods collected by the washing method but less than 30% by the Tullgren method. Collembola accounted for less than 10% collected by the washing method but about 60% by the Tullgren method. The density of Oribatida was higher when collected by the washing method than by the Tullgren method, and vice versa for the density of Collembola. Our results suggest that the washing method is appropriate for collecting Oribatida and other microarthropods, whereas the Tullgren method is better for collecting Collembola from the canopy litter of C. japonica trees.
A new device for extracting living invertebrates from large samples of leaf litter
A new device is described for extracting living invertebrates from large samples of leaf litter. Tests of the extractor with organisms introduced into litter showed that it was between 7 and 96% efficient. Tests with freshly collected litter resulted in efficiencies between 50 and 100%. Taxa that inhabit nests or cavities (ants, lepidoptera larva) within the litter were extracted poorly. Many taxon-types can be effciently and cheaply collected alive.
Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 2 Chemical and Microbiological Properties
Comparison of a funnel and a flotation method for extracting Acari and Collembola from moorland soils
A comparison is made of a Tullgren funnel (split-funnel) and a Salt and Hollick flotation method for extracting Acari and Collembola from a mull-like rendzina, a calcareous brown earth and two gleyed podsolic brown earths. The funnel method was superior for extracting most species or groups of species particularly small, weakly-sclerotised forms, such as Prostigmata and immature Cryptostigmata, which were lost or damaged by the flotation method. At least six species, two Collembola and four Cryptostigmata, were obtained in greater numbers by the flotation method. The immature stages of three commonly-occurring species of Cryptostigmata were not obtained by the funnel method. Evidence is presented suggesting that for at least eight species or groups of species the funnel method was less. efficient in the gleyed podsolic brown earths than in the calcareous brown earth and the mull-like rendzina.
Publisher: ELSEVIER GMBH HACKERBRUCKE 6, 80335 MUNICH, GERMANY
Some old methods applied in a new manner to a collecting machine
Publisher: Entomological Society of America
A rapid mechanical method for extracting soil arthropods
A rapid and accurate method is described for mechanically extracting the larvae of Inopus rubriceps (Macquart) (Diptera:Strationyidae) from soil samples. The general applicability of this technique for soil fauna extraction and root washing is discussed.
New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research
The Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science
A rapid method of sampling small free-living pasture insects and mites
The apparatus described was devised for the rapid sampling of Halotydeus destructor (Tucker) and Sminthurus viridis (L.) in pastures in Western Australia, where populations of these pests sometimes reach very high densities. A galvanised iron cylinder, 4 ins. in diameter, is used to remove a core of soil about 2 ins. in depth, which is then sieved through fly-wire gauze stretched across the inside of a metal funnel, 6 ins. in diameter and supported on a wooden frame. The organisms fall into a small plastic tube fastened over the neck of the funnel by a rubber collar, and virtually all are recovered in this way. The organisms are later scattered over trays painted chocolate brown or dark blue to facilitate their detection, and counted by means of an aspirator. This method enables one person to collect up to 100 samples in less than an hour, the time varying with the softness of the soil. In general, it is not suitable for dry or very sandy soils, which fall through the funnel.
Unusual entomological separation technique in use at the Food and Drug Administration
Proceedings of the International Working Conference on Stored Product Entomology
L’échantillonnage de la microfaune du sol
Programme Biologique International, Recherche Coopérative sur Programme du C.N.R.S.
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
Techniques relatives à l'extraction des arthropodes du sol
Proceeedings of the 2nd International Congress of Acarology
Aperçu théorique sur l´extraction des microarthropodes du sol par la méthode sélective [in French]
In this communication, the author considers the principles acting on soil samples during the extraction of microarthropods by means of the dry-funnel method. The physical study shows that the loss of water from the sample is divided into three phases: First. - The soaked sample gives away its water as a free water surface does; the evaporation rate is constant, it does not depend on the substance; the surface temperature of the sample is constant and equals the wet-bulb temperature in the given thermodynamic conditions. Second. - After an inflexion point, the water diffused from the lower layers is not sufficient to feed the outer layers; the evaporation rate decreases but in a variable way according ta the substance; the sample temperature increases, it tends to reach the air temperature which surrounds the sample. Third. - A second inflexion point shows that the evaporation rate is small; the sample becomes in hygroscopie equilibrium with the environmental air humidity, and the inner temperature reaches the air-temperature. The study of the animal escape is carried out at the same time by means of probabilistic methods. Two types of extraction were used: in natural convection (without air turbulence) and in forced convection (with 2 mis air flow). The repeated results of each experiment type are constant. A practical method to determine the end point of extraction is given by a simple temperature measurement: when the inner temperature of the sample reaches the environlnental air tenlperature, then, it is not possible to collect any animaIs.
About soil small arthropod extraction equipment [in Japanese]
Study on the extraction efficiency of Tullgren funnel in comparison with hand sorting [in Japanese]
Scientific Notes of the State Pedagogical Institute named after M. Gorky, Series Zoology
On the question of methods for collecting oribatid mites [in Russian]
This paper is intended as a practical summary of current methods used for sampling soil arthropod populations. Broadly speaking such methods are used in three main type of work: exploratory work which is not concerned with quantitative population estimates, but is aimed at finding what species occur in an area; secondly "community" studies which are concerned with the relative abundance of a wide range of species and often over a wide range of habitats; thirdly "tropic" studies which demand a knowledge of absolute abundance usually of relatively few species and in a single habitat. Each of these fields of work makes its particular demands on sampling and extraction techniques particularly regarding the sizes and numnbers of sample-units, the accuracy expected and the range of organisms to be found and enumerated. This has not always been recognized in the past and labour and resources have been inefficiently employed both in the field and the laboratory. The planning of a complete sampling system requires careful choice and matching of experimental design, extraction technique and methods of examination and counting in the light of the above considerations. The third section is concerned with the special problems posed by the patchiness of distribution which is usual among soil animals and the application of ranking and other alternatives to a complete census in community studies which do not necessitate the great labour of com­plete counts. The fourth section is a systematic survey of the main types of collection and extraction processes employed in the study of soil arthro pods. Three main types are recognized, those which are intended for the study of animals within the soil mainly by means of sections, the "be­haviour" methods in which animals are induced to leave the soil by atttractant or repellent stimuli and the "mechanical" methods by which animals are removed as a result of differences in physical properties from the surrounding medium. Among behaviour-type methods the use of pitfall traps and baited "lobster pot" traps can be used in the field whilst various devices de­veloped from the Berlese funnel and the wet or Baermann funnel de­mand that the samples be returned to a laboratory for extraction. Mechanical methods are based on sieving, sedimentation or differential wetting and flotation. These principles can be used successively and material from behaviour methods can also he cleaned mechanically. In general, the behaviour-type methods have the disadvantages, when compared with mechanical methods, that resting stages (eggs, pupae, etc.) are not removed, that, in any one apparatus the size of sample­-units is often fixed, and that changes in the populations of animals within the samples can occur during extraction due to hatching of eggs or to predation. On the other hand the behaviour-type methods have certain clear advantages. Sorting labour is reduced (because the animals walk out of the samples by themselves) a factor of especial importance when many small samples are to be treated. The simple behaviour-type apparatus is cheaper and better adapted to field use, the avoidance of sieving presents loss of the very numerous small forms such as Prostig­mata, Scutacaridae etc., and there is much less damage to specimens due to the more gentle handling of the soil. It must be appreciated, however, that no universal extraction method exists at the present time. Some guidance as to which methods work best with which groups is given in Table II, but even here such factors as sampling design and the nature of the soil must be considered. As an example of the factors that determine the choice of sampling systems three specific projects are considered in Section V.
US Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine
The chloropicrin separator, a device for separating insects from host materials
The extraction of fly larvae from woodland soils
Tests are described of the efficiency of extraction of fly larvae from woodland soils of mull and moder types by two types of Tullgren funnels, wet funnels and a modification of the Ladell technique involving wet-sieving and flotation in a glycerol-water mixture of relative density 1.14. The latter technique is believed to have an efficiency close to 100 per cent, and relative to it, simple Tullgren funnels extracted 12 per cent of the fly larvae present, the high gradient canister extractor extracted 26 per cent and the wet funnel extracted around 50-60 per cent. The 'dynamic' techniques were more efficient in extraction of larvae from litter than humus. Using the new flotation technique annual mean population estimates are obtained for the moder of about 5000/m^2 and for the mull 12,000/m^2; these are much higher than earlier estimates obtained with Tullgren funnels.
Evaluation of some sampling methods used to study Collembola (Insecta, Apterygota) in a pasture
We used the detrended correspondence analysis to compare the relative proportions of 15 species of springtails, which were captured in a pasture with vegetation sweeps, aspiration samples and pitfalls of 3 different sizes ( 14 mm; 8cm; 35cm), with the relative proportions of the same 15 species captured by extraction of soil samples. The analysis indicated that, compared to soil samples, the relative proportions in vegetation sweeps, large pitfalls and the time-sorting pitfall were distorted. Disproportionately large catches of Hypogastura cavicola in the large and the time-sorting pitfalls, and sampling of only a few species with vegetation sweeps were the main reasons. Both aspiration samples and small pitfalls provided a good assessment of the relative proportions of the captured species. The latter method is judged to be a reliable and practical method to sample springtails.
Testversuche mit immissionsgeschützen Bodenfallen für Mikroarthropoden
British Journal of Entomology and Natural History
Modifications to the design and deployment of a hypogean pitfall trap to improve sampling efficiency
Methods for palaeo-entomology on site and in the laboratory
A brief review of the development of the study of insect faunas of archeological sites is given, emphasizing the brevity of existing treatments of methodology and the lack of a theoretical basis for the interpretation of ancient assemblages. The deposits of value in pealeo-entomological studies are characterized by their nature and location and the uses of such studies on archeological sites are outlined. Methods of sampling for, extracting, concentrating, storing and identifying insect remains are described, with an outline of the routines followed in the York Archeological Trust laboratory. Short discussions of the problem of contamination and some aspects of interpretation stress the need for care in the field and the laboratory and the importance of developing a fuller understanding of the significance of ancient insect faunas through studies of modern assemblages.
A tested set of techniques for the extraction of plant and animal macrofossils from waterlogged archaeological deposits
The principles and methods of extracting and concentrating plant and animal macrofossils from waterlogged archeological deposits are briefly reviewed. Bulk-sieving (carried out on site), the extraction of plant macrofossils using a sieve-bank, and paraffin-flotation for insects are each described. Accounts designed to provide sufficient practical detail to permit successful application of the methods are given.
A methodological framework to embrace soil biodiversity
Soils host the vast majority of life on Earth including microorganisms and animals, and supporting all terrestrial vegetation. While soil organisms are pivotal for ecosystem functioning, the assemblages of different biota from a taxonomic and functional perspective, as well as how these different organisms interact, remains poorly known. We provide a brief overview of the taxonomic and functional diversity of all major groups of soil biota across different scales and organism sizes, ranging from viruses to prokaryotes and eukaryotes. This reveals knowledge gaps in relation to all soil biodiversity groups, which are especially evident for viruses, protists, micro- and mesofauna. We review currently-available methods to study the taxonomic and functional diversity of soil organisms by grouping all commonly-used methods into morphological, biochemical and molecular approaches. We list potentials and limitations of the methods to reveal that there is, as yet, no single method to fully characterize the biodiversity even of a single group of soil biota. Yet, we stress that we now have the methods available to enable scientists to disentangle the taxonomic and functional diversity of virtually all soil organisms. We provide a userfriendly guide to help researchers address a wider variety of soil biodiversity in their studies by discussing and critically analysing the various potentials and limitations of diverse methods to study distinct groups of soil life. We highlight that integrative methodological approaches, ideally in collaborative interactions, are key to advancing our understanding of soil biodiversity, such as the combination of morphological and molecular approaches to overcome method-specific limitations. Together, integrative efforts can provide information on the abundance, biomass, diversity and function of several groups of soil biota simultaneously. This newly-obtained integrative information on soil biodiversity will help to define the importance of soil biodiversity in ecosystem processes, functions, and services, and serve to refine food-web and earth system models.
Bulletin of the Entomological Society of Egypt
Soil arthropod fauna of an onion field, with evaluation to extraction methods used
1. - No members of the Onychophora or Crustacea were met with. 2. - Millions of other arthropods per acre were existing. Insecta exceeded mites in number and the two composed a very large fraction of the total arthropod fauna. Percentages of Myriapoda and spiders were relatively very low. 3. - Means per acre for the arthropod groups were given. 4. - Comparison between the TULLGREN-funnel method and the flotation method was discussed and the efficiency of the two methods was illustrated.
Extraction precision of sieving and brine flotation for removal of wheat midge, Sitodiplosis mosellana (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), cocoons and larvae from soil
Jahresberichte des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins Wuppertal
Die Sieb-Flotation-Methode. Bau und Erprobung eines ökologischen Arbeitsgeräts zur mechanischen Auslese von Bodenarthropoden
US International Biological Program, Desert Biome
Development of techniques for estimating biomass of desert inhabiting invertebrate animals
Data were collected to determine the effectiveness of the D-Vac insect net as a tool to quantitatively assess above-ground arthropod population. Sample data were compared to defaunation rules. Preliminary indications are that the D-Vac used for enclosed plots is an effective means for assessing both number and diversity of arthropods on low growing (up to 1 m) vegetation.
Publisher: US International Biological Program, Desert Biome, Logan, UT
Effect of sampling time on estimates of soil arthropod populations
The main purpose of this paper is to show the effect of sampling time over a 24 hour period on the numbers of arthropods found in two habitat types, old field and oak woods, of northeastern Illinois. Surface and soil samples were collected in the summer months of 1964 at the Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois and the arthropods were extracted from the samples in modified Tullgren funnels and preserved in alcohol. The analysis and interpretation of results was based on sorting and enumerating the organisms obtained in three categories; mites, springtails, and other arthropods. Results of the study indicate that time of sampling has a significant effect on the numbers of arthropods obtained. This effect was demonstrated for both habitats, surface as weil as soil samples, and for mites, springtails and other miscellaneous arthropods. In the old field habitat fewer mites are collected in the afternoon in both surface and soil samples than in the morning or evening. Springtails in this habitat are likewise less numerous in the afternoon surface samples but differ from mites in that they are more numerous in the afternoon soil samples than in the morning or evening. Other arthropods in the field habitat are more nume­rous in the afternoon surface samples than at other times. In the oak woods habitat surface samples both mites and other arthropods have highest numbers in the afternoon. Springtails in the woods surface samples are most numerous in the evening with lowest numbers in the morning. For oak woods soil samples, mites are least numerous in the morning, other arthropods least nume­rous in the afternoon, and springtails least numerous in the evening. Of many environmen tal factors involved in the complex interrelations of soil biology, it is suggested that the organisms are primarily moving in response to daily fluctuations in air teniperatures, soil temperatures, and moisture conditions. Since most published results do not state time of day when soil samples were taken, it is suggested that future data about this variable should be obtained for use in bioenergetic calculations using estimates of soil arthropods as weil as for comparisons of populations of soil arthropods from different habitats. If the above results are confirmed by additional studies using shorter time intervals, it should be possible to apply a correction factor to previously published data to more accurately estimate soil arthropod populations.
Effects of soil core handling, transport and storage on numbers and body sizes of edaphic predatory mites (Gamasina)
Composite sampling enhances the confidence of soil microarthropod abundance and species richness estimates
From the efficiency of Berlese Tullgren funnel to the spatiotemporal variation of two uropodina genera, Afrotrachytes Kontschán, 2006 and Trachyuropoda Berlese, 1888 (Acari, Mesostigmata) in Côte d’Ivoire
Due to their interaction with many other small Arthropods, Uropodina mites can be considered as good indicators of soil fauna of forest litter. In order, to better understand their distribution and phenology according to forest type four sites from primary forest to plantations were sampled in 2008 in Côte d’Ivoire: 1- the Lamto savannah (6°13' N, 5°02' W), 2- Oumé primary forest (6°31’ N, 5°30’ W), 3- Oumé teak plantation (6°31’ N, 5°30’ W) all situated in the Sudanese domain and finally, 4- the Taï primary forest (5°45’ N, 7°07 W) located in the Guinean domain. After a preliminary study devoted to the efficiency of Berlese Tullgren funnel, the spatiotemporal variation of two Uropodina genera - Afrotrachytes Kontschán, 2006 and Trachyuropoda Berlese, 1888 - was assessed. We hypothesized that the abundance of Uropodina would be higher in primary forest and lower in savannah and monospecific plantation. Whatever the season, we expected that the abundance of Uropodina would decrease with soil depth and would vary along transect. On each site, 15 sampling points were allocated over a 14-m transect with 1m intervals between two consecutive points. For each sampling point, 9 cores (litter, 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, 15-20, 20-25, 25-30, 30-35 and 35-40 cm) were taken with a steel corer (Ø 3.5 cm). Thus, a total of 1,080 soil cores were collected over two sampling periods from January to March 2008 (dry season) and August to October 2008 (rainy season). Soil physico-chemical parameters were also characterized. Mites were extracted using the Berlese-Tullgren funnels for one week after testing the extraction duration in a preliminary study. The bulbs lighting as soon as the soil cores were placed in Berlese Tullgren gave better results regarding the abundance of extracted mites. The results showed that the abundance of Afrotrachytes sp and Trachyuropoda sp was higher in rainy season, and varied significantly through the sites, whatever the season. The highest abundances of Afrotrachytes sp were observed in Oumé primary forest whereas those of Trachyuropoda sp were recorded in Oumé primary forest, and in Lamto savannah, whatever the season. Apart from the distribution of Trachyuropoda sp in dry season, the abundance of Afrotrachytes sp and Trachyuropoda sp was greater in the topsoil (litter and 0-5 cm) and decreased with soil depth. The abundances of Afrotrachytes sp and Trachyuropoda sp did not follow a normal distribution along the transects. The season-soil depth interaction affected significantly the abundance of Trachyuropoda sp whereas the bulk density (dry season and rainy season), soil depth (dry season), carbon / nitrogen ratio (dry season) impacted significantly the abundance of Afrotrachytes sp. This first study highlighted the spatiotemporal variation of Uropodina in Côte d’Ivoire. However, taking into account of the different dispersal agents in future studies would help us to better understand their abundance and distribution along different habitats, as well as their role as biological control agents.
Soil quality - Sampling of soil invertebrates - Part 2: Sampling and extraction of micro-arthropods (Collembola and Acarina) (ISO 23611-2:2006)
Sampling, extraction and precision regarding some statistical studies for population ecology of soil mesofauna
Publisher: Department of Zoology, Loyola College
The Collembolan, Oudemansia Esakii, an intertidal marine insect in Hong Kong, with emphasis on the floatation method of collection
Centrifugal flotation as an aid to separating invertebrates from detritus in benthic samples
Proceedings of the Zoological Society of Calcutta
Optimum temperature requirement for extracting the maximum number of soil insects and mites by a modified Tullgren apparatus
A modified Tullgren apparatus for determining the optimum range of temperature for the extraction of maximum number of soil insects and mites has been described. The optimum temperature has been found to be between 50° and 54°.
Two designs of hypogean pitfall trap with differing sampling port areas: a comparison of their catch sizes, compositions and resultant biodiversity index scores
Hypogean pitfall traps collect samples of under-ground soil-dwelling invertebrates. The way that such traps are deployed often results in disturbance of the surrounding soil profile. To avoid such soil disturbance a new design of hypogean pitfall trap (the "Fioratti trap") was produced. The new-style trap can be deployed by means of a soil corer or auger, inserting the trap directly into the hole. The total area of the sample ports of the new trap (100 cm2) is 20o/o that of the old 11 cm diameter trap, and thus1 smaller samples are collected . These require less time to sort and identify. Ideally, trap design should not unduly influence the makeup of the resultant invertebrate samples it collects. To investigate this, the old and new designs of hypogean pitfall trap were deployed simultaneously along a field margin at Peartrees Field, Jealott's Hill, Berkshire, and biodiversity indices calculated from the samples collected . While the new style traps collected a smaller number of specimens, they were observed to be 1.7 times more efficient (on a per area of soil sampled basis) than the old-style traps. The lower number of individuals collected in the new style traps resulted in a reduction in species richness. However, where aggregated non-metric dimensional scaling scores were computed the same shifts in community composition were detected by the two types of trap. Given the practical benefits associated with the new traps it is envisaged that the new design of pitfall trap is a good candidate for a standard device for sampling hypogean soil biota.
Below-ground pitfall traps for standardised monitoring of soil mesofauna: Design and comparison to Berlese/Tullgren funnels
Sampling of soil mesofauna has been traditionally carried out with Berlese/Tullgren extractions, a century old technique. However, sampling methods involving the extractions of soil are becoming increasingly difficult to implement and standardise due to the lack of commercially available equipment. Moreover, they are poorly suited to repeated sampling in the same locations and underestimate more mobile taxa. Below-ground (hypogean) pitfall trapping is a promising new technique that up to now was only attempted with bulky custom-manufactured tools. In the present work we test a cheap and easily deployable setup made using standard pipe fittings. The new design was compared across different environments with Berlese/Tullgren extractions in order to ascertain whether they produce similar species lists and detect the same environment-induced changes in communities. The two trap types were found to yield structurally different assemblages, with the new design producing significantly higher abundance and diversity of springtails and larger taxa. Beta-diversity profiles resulted however perfectly comparable, characterising the same pattern of dissimilarities. In addition, a new method is proposed to use the two sampling types in combination to estimate the dispersal of soil organisms. Below-ground pitfall traps have the potential to complement Berlese extractions for reliable and standardised monitoring of soil arthropods, thanks to their effectiveness, low cost and ease of operation.
Washing of the soil as a method for recording small soil insects [in Russian]
To determine the abundance of hemp flea-beetles [Psylliodes attenuata, Koch] in fields of hemp, samples of soil are usually dried, the lumps of earth broken by hand, and the beetles removed and counted. This method is, however, inaccurate and very laborious. It is suggested, therefore, that the samples of soil (a 2-inch layer from 3 sq. ft.) should be mixed with about 2 3/4 gals. water. Some of the flea-beetles rise to the surface immediately, and others will do as the soil is stirred at intervals. The whole process takes 20-25 minutes if there are not more than 50 beetles in the sample, or 40-45 minutes if there are 100-150.
The Role of Ground Beetles in Ecological and Environmental Studies
Influence of ethylene glycol on the numbers of carabids and other soil arthropods caught in pitfall traps
Catches of Carabidae, Staphylinidae, Collembola, Acari and Araneida in pitfall traps filled with ethylene glycol or water were compared. Ethylene glycol had a stronger attractive effect on carabid beetles than on other soil surface-active arthropods. The response of carabids to ethylene glycol depends on species and sex of the beetle. The use of ethylene glycol as a preservative increases the trapping efficiency of pitfall traps, but may lead to biased estimates of species composition and female/male ratio of carabid communities.
Detection of soil microarthropod aggregations in soybean fields, using a modified Tullgren extractor
The spatial distribution of soil microarthropods in soybean fields was investigated by use of a modified Tullgren extractor. Blocks of soil were extracted over a grid of collection cells from which microarthropod aggregations could be identified and measured. Aggregations in conventionally tilled soybeans were smaller than those in no-tillage soybeans, and had less influence on population distributions. Population size was highly correlated with the area of soil microarthropod aggregations.
Activity-stimulating phenomena caused by field-disturbance in the use of pitfall-traps
The influence of several mechanical field disturbances, when using pitfall-traps for activity determinations, is analysed. The disturbances result in higher catches of surface-dwelling Collembola; the animals being stimulated to higher locomotory activity. The disturbance by walking in the field results in a multiple of the control catch. This effect lasts for about 1 hour. The digging-in effect lasts for about two days but more or less different for the various species. The cause is sought in the CO2 production in the soil, which is considerable after soil disturbances. The reaction of Collembola to rather high CO2 concentrations in the air results in an increase of the locomotory activity. Another interpretation, namely attraction to CO2 sources, could not be demonstrated.
Captures of Protaphorura fimata (Collembola: Poduromorpha: Onychiuridae) on beet and potato baits in the Salinas Valley of California
Protaphorura fimata Gisin (Collembola: Poduromorpha: Onychiuridae) feeds on the germinating seeds of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), causing severe stand losses in the northern Salinas Valley of California. Because there is no grower-friendly tool available to monitor P. fimata in the commercial lettuce fields to guide management decisions, we examined the potential utility of potato slices (Solanum tuberosum L.), typically used to monitor garden symphylan, Scutigerella immaculata Newport, and beet slices (Beta vulgaris L.) as baits for P. fimata capture and compared them with P. fimata extracted from the soil using the Berlese funnel method. Results suggest that both potato and beet slices were attractive to P. fimata as they captured greater numbers of P. fimata when deployed in the soil than were extracted using a Berlese funnel. Between beet and potato, beet slices captured significantly greater numbers of P. fimata than potato slices in both years. In addition, two experiments were conducted to determine the effect of extended exposure of beet slices on P. fimata captures. Data suggest that greater numbers of P. fimata were captured with 1-d than 5-d exposure periods. However, there was no difference among 1- to 4-d exposures of beet in the soil.
Publisher: Georgia Entomological Society
Mitigating the conflict between pitfall-trap sampling and conservation of terrestrial subterranean communities in caves
Subterranean habitats are known for their rich endemic fauna and high vulnerability to disturbance. Many methods and techniques are used to sample the biodiversity of terrestrial invertebrate fauna in caves, among which pitfall trapping remains one of the most frequently used and effective ones. However, this method has turned out to be harmful to subterranean communities if applied inappropriately. Traditionally, pitfall traps have been placed in caves solely on the ground. Here we present an optimized technique of pitfall trapping to achieve a balance between sampling completeness and minimal disturbance of the fauna in the cave. Monthly we placed traps for two days in two parallel sets, a ground trap and an upper one−just below the ceiling−along the cave. In the upper set, about 10% additional species were recorded compared to the ground set. Greater species diversity in the cave was the consequence of both the increased sampling effort and the amplified heterogeneity of sampled microhabitats. In caves sampled by traditional pitfall trapping, overlooked species may be a consequence of methodological biases, leading to lower biodiversity estimates. In our research, incidencebased estimations mostly surpassed abundance-based ones and predicted 95% coverage of the species richness within about two years of sampling. The sampling used contributes at the same time to both the more effective and less invasive inventory of the subterranean fauna. Thus, it may serve as an optional sampling to achieve optimal balance between required data for biodiversity and ecological studies, and nature conservation goals.
The Entomologist's Record and Journal of Variation
A pitfall trap for the repetitive sampling of hypogeal arthropod faunas
Improved methods for quantifying soil invertebrates during ecotoxicological tests: Chill comas and anesthetics
Soil invertebrate ecotoxicological tests are important when making informed site-management decisions. However, traditional tests are time-consuming and require quantification of high numbers of soil invertebrates burrowed beneath the surface of soil. A commonly used technique to extract invertebrates from the soil is the floatation method. Due to the movement of Collembola, and the presence of small soil particulates and bubbles on the surface of the water, automatic image analysis software may inaccurately quantify the true number of individuals present. Hence, manual counting immediately following extraction, or from images, is still the most effective method utilized for quantifying floated soil invertebrates. This study investigated three novel techniques; the use of an ice-water bath, chest freezer (-12 ◦C) and ethanol to temporarily immobilize groups of 35 Folsomia candida individuals to increase accuracy during the quantification step. Active thermography to aid automatic image analysis was also investigated. Results show that while thermoimaging did not provide a distinct advantage in differentiating soil invertebrates from soil particles, both an ice-water bath and 4.75% ethanol solution were extremely effective at temporarily immobilizing F. candida with no apparent ill effects. The outcome of this study will assist future soil invertebrate research by increasing the accuracy of invertebrate quantifications. In addition, as the techniques caused no mortality to the invertebrates, the same individuals remain available for continuous monitoring experiments, repeated exposure, and/or multi-generational studies.
Large variation of suction sampling efficiency depending on arthropod groups, species traits, and habitat properties
Suction sampling is widely used to estimate arthropod abundance and diversity. To test the reliability of abundance data derived from suction sampling, we examined sampling efficiency across a wide range of arthropod groups and tested for effects of species traits, vegetation density, and differences between sites. Suction sampling efficiency was quantified by vacuuming an enclosed meadow area and subsequent removal of the turf, which was treated with heat extraction to collect the remaining arthropods. We obtained 250 pairs of suction and turf samples from seven grasslands with variable vegetation density. High suction sampling efficiencies between 49 and 86%were obtained for Auchenorrhyncha, Heteroptera, Araneida, Curculionoidea, Hymenoptera, and Diptera. In contrast, efficiencies were below 30% for Aphidae, Thysanoptera, Staphylinidae and other Coleoptera, and for soil arthropods such as Collembola, Isopoda, Diplopoda, and Formicidae. Efficiency varied significantly among habitats (sites) for most groups, often more than two-fold. Surprisingly, sampling efficiency for Hymenoptera, Diplopoda, and Collembola increased with vegetation density, probably because aboveground activity of these taxa was higher in dense vegetation. Suction sampling was nearly twice as efficient for spiders living in the vegetation than for spiders living near the soil surface, and cursorial and large-bodied spider species were more efficiently sampled than web-builders and small species.Depending on the sampling effort, suction sampling missed between 49% (one sample) and 31% (250 samples) of the spider species present. Suction sampling efficiency varied more strongly among sites and among arthropod groups than previously recognized. Abundance data derived from suction sampling are strongly underestimated, especially for arthropods living near the soil surface. Thus, comparisons of abundance and diversity between sites should be restricted to vegetation-dwelling species of the most efficiently sampled groups. The positive relationship of sampling efficiency with vegetation density demonstrates that variation in efficiency is mediated by arthropod behaviour.
The Japanese Journal of Experimental Medicine
Studies on mass culture and isolation of Dermatophagoides farinae and some other mites associated with house dust and stored food.
Comparative studies have been carried out for the development of efficient methods for mass culture and isolation of mites comnonly found in house dusts, mainly for the purpose of elucidating their breeding habits and for collecting large quantities of purified mite samples to be used for immunological or chemical investigations. Four species of mites have been bred and used for these studies, Dermatophagoides farinae (D.f.), Tyrophagus putrescentiae (T.p.), Aleuroglyphus ovatus (A.o.) and Carpoglyphus lactis (C.l.). Each of these species were found to require certain nutrients, humidity and temperature for the efficient breeding. Among various culture media tested, the powder of a laboratory animal food (for mouse and rat) was found to be fitted for the culture of the first three species, while a mixture of equal amount of dried yeast and sugar gave best results in C.l. The optimum humidity contents differed greatly among the species studied, and the highest recovery of the mites were obtained by adding water to the culture media to 12% in the case of D.f., about 15% in T.p. and A.o., and 25 to 35% in C.l. The recovery rates of the mites after several weeks of culture in these media were roughl 1 to 3 gr in wet weight per I00 gr of culture media in thc first three species, while the values reached often to over 20 gr in C.l. Comparative studies were carried out also on the efficacy of various methods for isolating mites from culture media. In our purpose of collecting fresh samples for immunological and chemical investigations, separation of living and dead mites from other debris by floata­tion on saturated waler solution of sodium chloride was shown to be best fitted. More purified samples of only the viable mites were obtained by trapping the escaped mites on watcr, either with or without application of heat using electric bulb. The recovery rate of living and dead mites with various collecting methods were compared by introducing known numbers of artificially marked mite specimens, and the separation method using saturated sodium chloride solution was shown to give satisfactory results especially for the living specimens. Some chemical and immunologic investigations were carried out with specimens cultured and isolated with the above methods.
Zum Sammeln von kleinen Bodentieren [in German]
Hypogean pitfall trapping: a novel technique for assessing soil biodiversity in agroecosystems
Hypogean (underground) pitfall traps differ from conventional surface (epigean) pitfall traps in that they sample organisms from within the soil profile rather than those found on the soil surface. A hypogean pitfall trap is described, and two were used to collect weekly samples of invertebrates under an arable field margin at Jealott’s Hill near Bracknell, Berkshire, UK for an entire year (2014). A total of 6197 specimens was recorded from 20 taxonomic groups (11 numerically major and 10 lesser groups). Of these, 5641 specimens were identified to 263 species, excepting the Acari, some Coleoptera larvae and Diptera larvae where identifications were to higher taxonomic levels. The results were used to derive annual and seasonal (quarterly) measures of biodiversity using four commonly used indices. Species richness ranked the annual totals for these numerically major groups, from most to least diverse, as follows: Coleoptera>Collembola>Diptera>Hymenoptera>Araneae>Acari>Gastropoda>Diplopoda>Chilopoda>Isopoda>Annelida. The four chosen indices showed a similar pattern of variation, and identified the Collembola, Acari and Coleoptera as good indicators of soil biodiversity.
Hypogean pitfall trapping: A window into another world
A comparison of epigean and hypogean pitfall traps for assessing soil biodiversity
Two types of pitfall trap were used to compare underground (hypogean) and soil-surface (epigean) invertebrate biodiversity. Samples were collected weekly from three hypogean and three epigean pitfall traps on each of two field margins (tussocky grass and 90% grass:I0% flowers) at Peartrees Field, Jealott's Hill, Berkshire, UK during spring and early summer of 2017. Biodiversity was assessed using four indices (Species Richness, Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index, Inverse Simpson's Diversity Index and the Berger-Parker Dominance Index). Results showed that epigean and hypogean pitfall traps sampled different terrestrial soil-associated invertebrates. Epigean traps tended to catch larger, darker, more mobile species of carabid and staphylinid beetle& The UK's largest collembolan, also highly pigmented, was primarily epigean, while the hypogean Collembola were represented by numerous small, often white and blind species. Species found exclusively in the hypogean environment included one snake millipede, two Collembola and a staphylinid, while two species of isopod, two species of Araneae, two Collembola, three carabids and two staphylinids were confined to the epigean environment. More species exhibited a preference for an epigean or a hypogean lifestyle than for a particular type of field margin. Two species of isopod and a staphylinid were recorded exclusively in the flowery margin, while a snake millipede, a collembolan, a carabid, a staphylinid and an unidentified species of dipluran were found only in the tussocky grass margin. With the exception of Species Richness, the tussocky grass margin had higher soil biodiversity than the floristically enhanced margin, while epigean biodiversity was consistently higher than hypogean biodiversity, regardless of margin type.
A comparison of Tullgren funnel extraction of soil cores with hypogean pitfall trapping for assessing soil biodiversity
During the spring and early summer of 2019 two techniques for sampling soil- dwelling organisms to examine biodiversity were compared. Samples were collected weekly, for seven weeks, from three hypogean pitfall traps on each of two field margins (tussocky grass and 90% grass:10% flowers) at Peartrees Field, Jealott's Hill, Berkshire, UK. At the same time, soil cores were taken proximal to the pitfall traps for Tullgren funnel extraction. Biodiversity was assessed using four indices (Species Richness, Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index, Inverse Simpson's Diversity Index and the Inverse Berger-Parker Dominance index). The hypogean pitfall traps collected three times more material than the Tullgren funnel samples, with the Diplopoda, Coleoptera, Formicidae, most of the Collembola and most groups of Acari being more numerous than in the soil cores. Taxa found exclusively in the pitfall traps included the snake millipede Allajulus nitidus (Verhoeff), the collembolans Metaphorura affinis (Barner) and Entomobrya multifasciata (Tullberg), the click beetle Agriotes lineatus (L.), staphylinid larvae and the ant Lasius niger (L.). By contrast, the fungus gnats Exechia spp., the Psychodidae and several species of parasitic wasp were found only in the soil cores. One species, the ant Lasius jiavus (F.), was found exclusively in the 90% grass 10% wildflower margin, while the isopod Oniscus asellus L., the linyphiid spiders, oribatid mites, three species of Collembola and the staphylinid larvae also preferred this margin, being on average nine times more frequent than in the tussocky grass margin. Only the Cyclorrhapha of the Diptera, endostigmatid mites and seven species of Collembola showed a marked preference for the grassy margin habitat over the flowery field margin.
Development and evaluation of a new method for sampling and monitoring the symphylid population in pineapple
BACKGROUND: Symphylids (Hanseniella sp.) are polyphagous soilborne parasites. Today, symphylid populations on pineapple are monitored by observing root symptoms and the presence of symphylids at the bottom of basal leaves. The authors developed a reliable method with a bait and trap device to monitor symphylid populations in pineapple or fallow crops. The spatial distribution of the symphylid populations was evaluated using the variance/mean ratios and spatial analyses based on Moran's and Geary's indices. The method has been tested to monitor symphylid populations at different developmental stages of pineapple. RESULTS: Adding potato baits to the soil samples increased the trapping efficiency of symphylids when compared with ‘soil only’ and ‘bait only’ methods. The handling of the samples is also facilitated by the new device. Results showed that the vertical distribution of symphylids may be uniform deeply inside the soil profile under pineapple, up to 50 cm. Results showed that symphylid populations are highly aggregated, showing a spot area about 4–6 m wide for their development. CONCLUSION: The new method allows better and easier evaluation of symphylid populations. It may be very useful in the evaluation of new IPM methods to control symphylids under pineapple.
Sweeping beauty: Is grassland arthropod community composition effectively estimated by sweep netting?
Arthropods are critical ecosystem components due to their high diversity and sensitivity to perturbation. Furthermore, due to their ease of capture they are often the focus of environmental health surveys. There is much debate regarding the best sampling method to use in these surveys. Sweep netting and pan trapping are two sampling methods commonly used in agricultural arthropod surveys, but have not been contrasted in natural grassland systems at the community level. The purpose of this study was to determine whether sweep netting was effective at estimating arthropod diversity at the community level in grasslands or if supplemental pan trapping was needed. Arthropods were collected from grassland sites in Montana, USA, in the summer of 2011. The following three standardized evaluation criteria (consistency, reliability, and precision) were developed to assess the efficacy of sweep netting and pan trapping, based on analyses of variations in arthropod abundances, species richness, evenness, capture frequency, and community composition. Neither sampling method was sufficient in any criteria to be used alone for community‐level arthropod surveys. On a taxa‐specific basis, however, sweep netting was consistent, reliable, and precise for Thysanoptera, infrequently collected (i.e., rare) insects, and Arachnida, whereas pan trapping was consistent, reliable, and precise for Collembola and bees, which is especially significant given current threats to the latter's populations worldwide. Species‐level identifications increase the detected dissimilarity between sweep netting and pan trapping. We recommend that community‐level arthropod surveys use both sampling methods concurrently, at least in grasslands, but likely in most nonagricultural systems. Target surveys, such as monitoring bee communities in fragmented grassland habitat or where detailed information on behavior of the target arthropod groups is available can in some instances employ singular methods. As a general ecological principle, consistency, reliability, and precision are appropriate criteria to evaluate the applicability of a given sampling method for both community‐level and taxa‐specific arthropod surveys in any ecosystem.
Odběr, skladování a zpracování půdních vzorků pro biologické a chemické analýzy
Extrakce v modifikovaném Kempsonově aparátu - efektivní metoda pro kvantitativní studium půdní makrofauny [in Czech]
Publications of the Amakusa Marine Biology Laboratory
The bio-economics on the populations of Isotoma (Desoria) trispinata MacGillivray (Collembola; Isotomidae) and Onychiurus (Protaphorura) sp. (Collembola; Onychiuridae) in a grassfield
1. The populations of Isotoma (Desoria) trispinata MacGillivray and Onychiurus (Protaphorura) sp. were sampled monthly at the grassfield in the Experimensal Field of Department of Biology, Kyushu University, during the period from December 1966 to November 1967. 2. The population of I. trispinata in the soil layer of upper 0-5 cm in depth attained to more than 94% of the total population. More than 80% of the total population of Onychiurus sp. was found in the soil of 0-15 cm layer in depth. 3. The majority of the populations of I. trispina and Onychiurus sp. consisted of adult in cold months of December and February. The majority of the recruitment of the population occurred in the warmer seasons under the wet conditions. 4. The population of I. trispina between December 1966 and November 1967 fluctuated between 86,000 and 10,000 per m^2. The population of Onychiurus sp. varied from 9.000 to 84,000 per m^2. 5. It was found that the efficiency of the extractor used in this study is 25.8% in I. trispina, and 23.5% in Onychiurus sp. 6. The density of the total Collembolan population, in this study, corrected by means of the efficiency of the extractor attains to 2 x 10^5 per m^2, which is double of the highest density of Collembolan populations ever studied.
A method for sampling lucerne flea, Sminthurus viridis L. (Collembola: Sminthuridae), in annual medic pastures
A simple sticky‐trap method suitable for estimating the abundance of Srninthurus viridis on annual medic pastures was developed and compared to a standard coring method. The sticky‐trap was developed for sampling in newly established medic pastures when cores cannot be removed intact due to insufficient plant material, particularly on dry or sandy soils. This method provides a quick estimate of S. viridis population density in the field.
Biodiversity of Collembola in sugar maple (Aceraceae) forests
Collembola of 12 sugar maple forests of southern Quebec were surveyed through pit-light trapping and soil core extraction. These two sampling techniques were highly complementary, as pit-light traps are more efficient for sampling epigaeic species while soil core extractions are more efficient for hypogaeic species. A total of 108 species representing 38 genera and seven families was collected. Nine genera and 67 species are new records for the province of Quebec and 12 species are new records for Canada. The distribution of species among the different sites is summarized and taxonomic remarks are provided for 20 problematic species. A low percentage of the Quebec collembolan fauna is shared with Ontario and Newfoundland, which probably reflects an incomplete inventory of the fauna rather than highly different regional patterns in collembolan communities. The use of these two complementary sampling techniques is suggested to improve the inventory of Collembola in future research.
Simple traps for invertebrates [original in Russian]
Four simple traps for dendrobiontic invertebrates and two light traps that attract nonflying (wingless and larval) forms of invertebrates are described. Along with data on phenology, population dynamics, and other aspects of invertebrate biology and ecology, the new traps provide the possibility of revealing migrations of entomophages and economically dangerous species in a timely manner, thereby improving the efficiency of pest population monitoring.
A “quick trap” for area sampling of arthropods in grassland communities
A spring-operated trap for area sampling of arthropods in grass communities is described. The trap is designed to pounce on the area to be sampled when triggered from a distance, thus avoiding the danger of the sampler and his equipment driving active and easily disturbed animals from the area to be sampled. The arthropods on the sample area are confined until removed by a vacuum collector. The method is compared with other methods of sampling, including 2 forms of sweep net and a vacuum collector used in other ways. A high degree of efficiency for the new trap is demonstrated.
Finding the optimal strategy for quantitative sampling of springtails community (Hexapoda: Collembola) in glacial lithosols
Springtails (Hexapoda: Collembola) play a key role in biological community in glacial ecosystems and represent important ecological indicators in such threatened habitats. An effective sampling protocol for springtail community that optimizes sampling effort in the peculiar conditions of glacial lithosols is not available. We tested three sampling methods on the Sforzellina glacier (Central Italian Alps) in 21 sampling points. For each sampling point, we performed: 1. Tullgren funnels; 2. Flotation method; 3. Pitfall trapping. The potential effect of different sampling methods on species detection was evaluated by ANOVA and by N-mixture models for Flotation method and Tullgren funnels. The incidence coverage estimator (ICE) was used to test the performance of each sampling method comparing the observed vs estimated species richness. Our analysis showed that the sampling method affected the number of species and individuals recorded. Tullgren funnels collected the highest number of species, pitfall trapping the highest average number of species, but did not detect soil species. The observed/ estimated species ratio was higher for pitfall trapping and Tullgren funnels than for flotation. The combination of pitfall trapping with Tullgren funnels or flotation method resulted optimal in terms of number of species and functional types recorded. Flotation method collected more than twice the number of specimens obtained with Tullgren, indicating a higher ability to extract springtails from mineral soil. Flotation method and Tullgren funnels detected the same community, from a functional point of view, but only flotation method collected all the most abundant species. These results indicate that a combination of pitfall trapping and flotation should be evaluated in order to maximize the obtained information in terms of specie assemblage composition and functional categories.
Bodenzoologie als Grundlage der Bodenpflege: mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Bodenfauna in den Ostalpen und im Donaubecken [in German]
Effects of different organic mulches on the soil surface arthropod community and weeds in snapdragon
Cultural control practices, including the use of cover crops and mulches, are convenient non-chemical methods for managing some insect pests and weeds. Several different types of organic mulches were evaluated for their effects on soil surface arthropods, weeds, and mortality of snapdragon plants in the autumn of both 2007 and 2008 near Citra, Florida, USA. In both seasons, five treatments were compared: cowpea mulch, sunn hemp mulch, sorghum-sudangrass mulch, pine bark nuggets, and an unmulched control.Mulches were applied around snapdragon plants in small plots, and treatments arranged in a randomized complete block design with five replications. Arthropod groups sampled using pitfall and board traps varied in their responses to treatments. The numbers of Formicidae, Cicadellidae, Orthoptera, and small-bodied plant-feeders (aphids, whiteflies, and thrips) were higher in control or cowpea plots than several of the other mulch treatment plots, possibly because weed levels were higher in control and cowpea plots. Collembola, Diptera, Araneae, and Coleoptera did not differ among treatments in either season. Board traps were effective for assessing Gryllidae and some beetles in 2007, when both groups were more abundant in the control and cowpea mulch plots than in the pine bark nugget plots, but in 2008 catches were not affected by treatment. Predatory insects were not consistently affected by mulches. Buckeye caterpillars feeding on the plants were not affected by the treatments and caused 28% mortality to snapdragon plants in 2007 and 27% mortality in 2008.
International Journal of Pest Management
Techniques d'extraction applicables a l'étude écolgique des acariens des poussières de maison. Comparaison qualitative et quantitative de divers types de poussières
Pitfall trapping in flooding habitats: a new technique reveals Archisotoma pulchella (Collembola: Isotomidae) as new to the Belgian fauna
Flooding habitats are unique ecosystems with complex land-water interactions. Research on their terrestrial component is seriously hindered by the lack of an adequate and efficient technique for pitfall trapping. This paper focuses on three consecutive items: (1) the description of a new type of trap, developed for use in temporarily submersed areas; (2) evaluation of its potential usefulness by a literature search of pitfall trapping in diverse environments (1998-2003); (3) its application in the trapping of arthropods inhabiting a salt marsh. The literature search demonstrates a bias towards forests, neglecting flooding biotopes. Beetles and spiders are by far the prominent taxa studied that way. Apart from some Diptera, Archisotoma pulchella, a new species of Collembolan for the Belgian fauna, is the only arthropod species trapped by the described sampling technique on the mud flats of the intertidal zone of the Ijzer estuary (Belgium), albeit in very high numbers. Additional sampling provided records from the Schelde estuary, and allows reconstructing some characteristics of its population dynamics.
Publisher: KONINKLIJKE BELGISCHE VERENIGING VOOR DIERKUNDE
Comparison of extraction efficiency between Winkler and Tullgren extractors for tropical leaf litter macroarthropods
Winkler and Tullgren extractors are commonly used to extract soil and litter arthropods for ecological surveys and community studies all over the world. These two devices differ in their extraction efficiency. In this study, we investigated the extraction efficiency of Winkler and Tullgren extraction devices. We collected paired samples and extracted them under the same conditions in both types of devices. Tullgren extraction was more effective for extracting soil and litter macroarthropods than Winkler extraction both qualitatively and quantitatively. The number of specimens collected by Tullgren extraction was consistently higher than Winkler extraction for all macroarthropod groups. Qualitatively, Tullgren extraction yielded more beetle families and pselaphine beetle species than Winkler extraction. Winkler extraction sampled only dominant groups of soil and litter macroarthropods collected. Thus for more complete species inventories in ecological and taxonomic studies, Tullgren extraction method is more effective than Winkler.
Symphylans: soil pest management options